SOUTH BAY RESEARCH NOTES & RESOURCES:
Overview
"Fort Point Channel and South Bay constitute an estuary of Boston Harbor approximately two miles long serving as a natural water barrier separating Boston Proper and South Boston. South Bay, which extends from Massachusetts Avenue to the Dover Street Bridge, has as its upper extremity a shallow channel known as Roxbury Canal. Fort Point Channel is defined as the waterway extending below the Dover Street Bridge to the inner harbor at Northern Avenue. At a point approximately halfway between Dorchester Avenue Bridge and Massachusetts Avenue the Dorchester Brook, a branch estuary, discharges into the easterly side of South Bay in an irregular open channel.
The channel area has always been used as an outlet for drainage and sewage, a situation never very desirable although at least tolerable in colonial times when the tidal flow produced sufficient dilution. As population increased in the area and land encroachment decreased the estuary, a system of sewers was constructed to collect and convey the sewage within the main sewage system to the outlet at Moon Island. However, at times of storm this system is grossly overtaxed, discharging drainage and sewage into the channel, creating a nuisance and health menace.
The most offensive condition exists in the upper portion of the channel from Massachusetts Avenue to the vicinity of the Dorchester Avenue Bridge where the water is badly discolored and foully objectionable with masses of floating sludge and rising gas bubbles abundant. The degree of pollution present has caused the area to be referred to as an open cesspool and it is readily apparent that the condition of these waterways will become more offensive and must be remedied in the public interest. The Channel and Bay above Dorchester Avenue are absolutely useless for waterborne commerce and serve only as a serious health problem due to intolerable sanitary conditions as well as constituting an unsightly nuisance and safety hazard."
Fort Point Channel and South Bay, Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City of Boston, Senate — No. 498 (1959).
Concerns about lowering the water in the soil by means of the proposed scheme ; rotting piles – only area at risk between Albany and Harrison, Essex and Beach “Intercepting sewers are expected to serve the purpose formerly gained for the South End by using the old “closed basin” now happily abolished. They will simply furnish a low point to which our present sewers can steadily drain.”
Our own experience and that of London before the embankment of the Thames show that it is the mud banks, alone, that are offensive,” an hour at high tide at summer on the Roxbury Canal, or in the midst of the foul gases bubbling up on Beacon street, would show that the mud banks are the chief but not the only source of the offense.”
The construction of another long sewer to divert the filth of Roxbury Canal
Force-pump action of the rising tide, which drives the foul gases forcibly into ever crack where they can find and vent.
Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Sewerage: Before the Joint Committee of the City Council (May 10 1876)
The channel area has always been used as an outlet for drainage and sewage, a situation never very desirable although at least tolerable in colonial times when the tidal flow produced sufficient dilution. As population increased in the area and land encroachment decreased the estuary, a system of sewers was constructed to collect and convey the sewage within the main sewage system to the outlet at Moon Island. However, at times of storm this system is grossly overtaxed, discharging drainage and sewage into the channel, creating a nuisance and health menace.
The most offensive condition exists in the upper portion of the channel from Massachusetts Avenue to the vicinity of the Dorchester Avenue Bridge where the water is badly discolored and foully objectionable with masses of floating sludge and rising gas bubbles abundant. The degree of pollution present has caused the area to be referred to as an open cesspool and it is readily apparent that the condition of these waterways will become more offensive and must be remedied in the public interest. The Channel and Bay above Dorchester Avenue are absolutely useless for waterborne commerce and serve only as a serious health problem due to intolerable sanitary conditions as well as constituting an unsightly nuisance and safety hazard."
Fort Point Channel and South Bay, Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City of Boston, Senate — No. 498 (1959).
Concerns about lowering the water in the soil by means of the proposed scheme ; rotting piles – only area at risk between Albany and Harrison, Essex and Beach “Intercepting sewers are expected to serve the purpose formerly gained for the South End by using the old “closed basin” now happily abolished. They will simply furnish a low point to which our present sewers can steadily drain.”
Our own experience and that of London before the embankment of the Thames show that it is the mud banks, alone, that are offensive,” an hour at high tide at summer on the Roxbury Canal, or in the midst of the foul gases bubbling up on Beacon street, would show that the mud banks are the chief but not the only source of the offense.”
The construction of another long sewer to divert the filth of Roxbury Canal
Force-pump action of the rising tide, which drives the foul gases forcibly into ever crack where they can find and vent.
Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Sewerage: Before the Joint Committee of the City Council (May 10 1876)
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"From Colonial times, the Channel and Bay areas have been used as a drainage and sewage outlet, and such use continues to this day, although the volume of sewage has, of necessity, been diverted with the exception of overflow. When the waterway was of considerable size, the sewage was no great problem, as the daily tidal flow produced sufficient dilution to remove the menace. As the population concentration around the area increased and the Bay decreased in size, the sewage concentration mounted to such dangerous proportions that it had to be collected and discharged into the main sewerage system.
The Channel and Bay are still, however, a potential health menace when the main sewerage system is overtaxed and drainage and' sewage overflow eventually find their way into the Channel. This sanitary problem still exists and must be coped with at some time and eliminated in the public interest... At this time the Channel and Bay are of little value to commerce, and the general condition of the properties in this area presents an unsightly nuisance.
Fort Point Channel, South Bay and their adjacent areas have been the subject of consideration by legislative committees for over eighty years. The waterway has stimulated this repeated display of legislative interest because of its decline to a state of general dilapidation and its growth as a public nuisance. Numerous special commissions have studied the area and have made recommendations as to its disposition, but to date there has been little change as a result of these investigations."
The Channel and Bay are still, however, a potential health menace when the main sewerage system is overtaxed and drainage and' sewage overflow eventually find their way into the Channel. This sanitary problem still exists and must be coped with at some time and eliminated in the public interest... At this time the Channel and Bay are of little value to commerce, and the general condition of the properties in this area presents an unsightly nuisance.
Fort Point Channel, South Bay and their adjacent areas have been the subject of consideration by legislative committees for over eighty years. The waterway has stimulated this repeated display of legislative interest because of its decline to a state of general dilapidation and its growth as a public nuisance. Numerous special commissions have studied the area and have made recommendations as to its disposition, but to date there has been little change as a result of these investigations."
A Study for the Development of Fort Point Channel, South Bay, and Adjacent Areas, Port of Boston Authority (1950).
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"It was the practically unanimous opinion of all witnesses before our Commission that. existing conditions in Boston Harbor directly threaten the health of the people using the harbor waters for bathing. Those appearing before us stated without qualification that many ailments could be traced to disease germs breeding in the pollution of the harbor. All declared that pollution endangering the health of children is directly traceable to the discharge of raw sewage into the harbor. Our Commission was told that pollution produced infections of the ear, inflammation of the eyes, skin diseases and several other serious illnesses."
"Present conditions are so serious that organized public protest has been made to secure correction. This was graphically demonstrated to this Commission at our hearings. Hundreds of men and women charged there is a health menace, declared recreational facilities were lost to them, and decried destruction of the esthetic beauties of the district because of existing conditions. Our personal examinations of waters in Boston Harbor and complaints registered by residents of the Metropolitan area, all substantiate previous reports of investigating bodies that pollution exists. We unequivocally state that conditions now existent in Boston Harbor and along the shores of the bay are sufficiently grave to make it mandatory that we recommend a definite program for
alleviation of the objectionable conditions."
"In the course of our study, this Commission found- That Boston Harbor, Quincy Bay, Hingham Bay and tidal estuaries are polluted. That streams tributary to Boston Harbor are polluted. That a potential health menace exists in these waters as a result of pollution. That the present North and South Metropolitan Sewerage systems and the Boston Main Drainage System are inadequate. Sewage overflows into streams. Pollution results. That pollution curtails recreational expansion in Boston Harbor and its tributaries. That pollution handicaps growth of residential areas along our coast line. This threatens to lower property values. That the danger to public health will increase rather than decrease if pollution is not checked. That pollution of Boston Harbor must be stopped. That pollution of inland waterways must be stopped. That treatment of sewage at the outlets in Boston Harbor will materially improve conditions which are now highly objectionable. That there is a widespread public demand for corrective
action."
Report of the Special Commission Investigating Systems of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal in the North and South Metropolitan Sewerage Districts and the City of Boston, Commonwealth of Massachusetts House, (June 15 1939).
"Present conditions are so serious that organized public protest has been made to secure correction. This was graphically demonstrated to this Commission at our hearings. Hundreds of men and women charged there is a health menace, declared recreational facilities were lost to them, and decried destruction of the esthetic beauties of the district because of existing conditions. Our personal examinations of waters in Boston Harbor and complaints registered by residents of the Metropolitan area, all substantiate previous reports of investigating bodies that pollution exists. We unequivocally state that conditions now existent in Boston Harbor and along the shores of the bay are sufficiently grave to make it mandatory that we recommend a definite program for
alleviation of the objectionable conditions."
"In the course of our study, this Commission found- That Boston Harbor, Quincy Bay, Hingham Bay and tidal estuaries are polluted. That streams tributary to Boston Harbor are polluted. That a potential health menace exists in these waters as a result of pollution. That the present North and South Metropolitan Sewerage systems and the Boston Main Drainage System are inadequate. Sewage overflows into streams. Pollution results. That pollution curtails recreational expansion in Boston Harbor and its tributaries. That pollution handicaps growth of residential areas along our coast line. This threatens to lower property values. That the danger to public health will increase rather than decrease if pollution is not checked. That pollution of Boston Harbor must be stopped. That pollution of inland waterways must be stopped. That treatment of sewage at the outlets in Boston Harbor will materially improve conditions which are now highly objectionable. That there is a widespread public demand for corrective
action."
Report of the Special Commission Investigating Systems of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal in the North and South Metropolitan Sewerage Districts and the City of Boston, Commonwealth of Massachusetts House, (June 15 1939).
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Minority Report:
"In view of the fact that the city of Boston is confronted with several major problems, the solution of which would entail great expense, and each of which is of as pressing necessity as the sewerage problem, I am inclined to the opinion that the proposed construction program, other than the (Deer Island and Nut Island) treatment plants, desirable as the whole program may be, should be delayed until more favorable financial conditions warrant their construction. Respectfully, Robert P. Shea, Division Engineer, Sewer Division, City of Boston."
Report of the Special Commission Investigating Systems of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal in the North and South Metropolitan Sewerage Districts and the City of Boston, Commonwealth of Massachusetts House, (June 15 1939).
"In view of the fact that the city of Boston is confronted with several major problems, the solution of which would entail great expense, and each of which is of as pressing necessity as the sewerage problem, I am inclined to the opinion that the proposed construction program, other than the (Deer Island and Nut Island) treatment plants, desirable as the whole program may be, should be delayed until more favorable financial conditions warrant their construction. Respectfully, Robert P. Shea, Division Engineer, Sewer Division, City of Boston."
Report of the Special Commission Investigating Systems of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal in the North and South Metropolitan Sewerage Districts and the City of Boston, Commonwealth of Massachusetts House, (June 15 1939).
"Predisposition disease may be caused by the constant inhalation of odors from sewage or such gases as ammonium sulphide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulphide, all of which may be generated during the decomposition of organic matter.” “Records are in existence which tell of the deaths caused by accumulation of heavy gases in cesspools and in dead ends of sewers. Such deaths, however are due to suffocation or to poisoning with such gases as hydrogen sulphide or illuminating gas, not to he deadly germ enemies commonly supposed to inhabit sewers.”
Boston Evening Transcript, Sewer Gas & Disease, Sat, Apr 09, 1910 ·Page 52
As presented in Chapter 1, Massachusetts House Document No. 1600 of 1936 evaluated pollution problems In Boston Harbor and its tributary streams. This study inventoried in detail pollution problems and sewerage systems in the Boston Harbor area identifying 217 external overflow locations, 165 internal overflow locations to relief conduits, and 1514 regulators . Major factors relating to pollution conditions were Identified as: Bacterial pollution, floating solids, slick, and sludge deposits. Dissolved oxygen content in the waters was not found to be a nuisance anywhere. However, the oxygen content in the Port Po int Channel was found to be lowest of the readings taken.
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BOSTON HARROR, METCALF AND EDDY INC (1975)
1878 – Alderman authorizes taking by Boston of the Roxbury Canal lands for the abetment of a nuisance. Another Alderman objected saying the city “going into a large real estate speculation” and because he “believed the nuisance could be abated some other way.” Another added it would be “unjust” for the city to take citizens land without a plan for what it would do with it. Minority report was by Councilmember Thorndike and is “entitled to response” and is civil engineer. Asks to substitute minority report – denied. Taking approved. Boston Post Tue, Jun 25, 1878 ·Page 4
Councilmembers also argued against majority plan and for minority plan.
The Boston Globe, Roxbury Canal Lands to be Taken, p. 2, Fri, Jul 12, 1878.
Diverting the sewage would in part remedy the matter, but would still leave much putrid matter in the canal
Boston Evening Transcript Mon, Apr 08, 1878 ·Page 8
An unwise provision was inserted in the charters of some of the private corporations organized for the purpose of reclaiming and filling areas of flats, by which it was stipulated that the corporations should themselves extend all sewers whose discharge would be obstructed by the filling. Such extensions were made without system, by building flat-bottomed wooden scow sewers, which were laid upon the soft surface of the flats before the filling was done. Cross-sections of various common forms of existing city sewers are shown on Plate II., Figs. 1 to 22. Fig. 22 shows Stony-Brook culvert, which constitutes the lower mile of Stony Brook, and is that part of it which is covered and used as a sewer.
Recommended to close that portion of the Roxbury Canal west of Albany Street. If this is done, the expensive of a siphon for the sewer in Albany street will be saved and the value of land reclaimed will more than be compensate for the expensive of filling it beside greatly improving the sanitary condition of the immediate vicinity. The sewage from South Boston is to be intercepted by a sewer to be built in Dorchester Ave St and First to 2nd st.
Boston Evening Transcript, Tue, Jun 13, 1876 ·Page 3
1887 – actions taken and now paper describes the “famous Roxbury canal lands” as no longer a “quagmire” but “not a beautiful garden.”
In some portions of the sewers earthly accretions form on the arch. When the sewer is surrounded by marsh mud these are turned black by sulphuretted hydrogen , sometimes they are colored yellow by iron, often they appear as white stalactites. In Claey soil, the arch seems to be about as clean as when laid.
The catch-pails under the ventilating man-hole covers are emptied as occasion demands. In some locations and at some seasons pails will be filled in less than a month.
In the spring when the ground is full of water much of it leaks into the common sewers and is by them carried to the interceptors. Sea water, at high tide, finds its way along some of the old box-sewers and leaks into them back of the tide gates. Should rebuilt many of the old sewers, in whole or in part.
Some of the tide gates were made of white pine and some of spruce. A few fof the latter, which have been in place for three years, already show signs of decay. Replace them with creosoted lumber.
1885 Main Drainage Works.pdf
“There is certainly a difference between offensive gases and the products of putrefaction of a dangerous kind.”
Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Sewerage: Before the Joint Committee of the City Council (May 10 1876)
When it rains and deposits are scoured out of the old sewers very much more filth is caught in the cages. The amount sometimes equals three or four cubic yards in 24 hours. They can back up the sewer in front of them. The filth was too wet to burn, and didn’t want to bury it, so dried it and burned it. Pump stations powered by coal
1885 Main Drainage Works.pdf
City of Boston knew in 1876 that house drains are of no avail “against the force of gases,” or “the additional force of the wind and tide.”
Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Sewerage: Before the Joint Committee of the City Council (May 10 1876)
Culvert Holding Up Ft. Point Channel Fill “thirty acres will be filled in after culvert is built”
City officials mentioned “potential development opportunity.” Mile long culvert . Coordinating with BR, MTA, and DPW – BRA resulted in “moving the culvert closer to the SE Exp. In order to not interfere with possible future building developments.” Talk of a Sears Roebuck. Meanwhile DPW has “dumped hundreds of tons of incinerator ash in some sections of the open area” And city is eyeing more than 100 acres total for south bay. The Boston Globe, Sun, Jun 07, 1964 ·Page 50
Complaints against Boston, Lowell Railroad Corporation, and Harford & Erie Railroad Co. for recent and ongoing attempts to fill South Bay and the marshland including placing roads and railroads on flat surfaces across the bay rather then elevating them.
Trustee of Boston want a solid embankment across the bay and the railroad already acted with “solid filling that has been unlawfully put into the bay”
Sanitary conditions require that South Bay should be deepened, so that its flats, impregnated with sewage matter, should not be exposed at every low tide to the sun. Commerce needs a deeper water in South Bay.
The westerly portion of the bay can only be deepened economically by using the material dredged out in filling up so much of the bay as lies east of the railroad. Such an excavation and filling would harmonize all interests. “
The Board has also requested the DA for Suffolk Co to edict George W. Gerrish for unlawfully building a wharf to Chelsey in violation of the four and fifth section so of Chapter 149.
Boston Post, Legal Proceedings, Thu, Feb 26, 1874 ·Page 4
One additional legacy of the river’s long human history is pollution from industry and sewage. By 1875, a total of 43 mills were operating along the lower Charles River between Watertown Dam and Boston Harbor (Charles River Watershed Association, 2004a). Thousands of gallons of untreated sewage and industrial wastewater entered the river daily through gravity drains, posing a major threat to public health (City of Boston, 1878). Concerted efforts to address the sewage problem began in the late 1870s
Weiskel, Barlow, & Smieszek, Water Resources and the Urban Environment, Lower Charles River Watershed, Massachusetts, 1630–2005, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2005
Boston Evening Transcript, Sewer Gas & Disease, Sat, Apr 09, 1910 ·Page 52
As presented in Chapter 1, Massachusetts House Document No. 1600 of 1936 evaluated pollution problems In Boston Harbor and its tributary streams. This study inventoried in detail pollution problems and sewerage systems in the Boston Harbor area identifying 217 external overflow locations, 165 internal overflow locations to relief conduits, and 1514 regulators . Major factors relating to pollution conditions were Identified as: Bacterial pollution, floating solids, slick, and sludge deposits. Dissolved oxygen content in the waters was not found to be a nuisance anywhere. However, the oxygen content in the Port Po int Channel was found to be lowest of the readings taken.
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BOSTON HARROR, METCALF AND EDDY INC (1975)
1878 – Alderman authorizes taking by Boston of the Roxbury Canal lands for the abetment of a nuisance. Another Alderman objected saying the city “going into a large real estate speculation” and because he “believed the nuisance could be abated some other way.” Another added it would be “unjust” for the city to take citizens land without a plan for what it would do with it. Minority report was by Councilmember Thorndike and is “entitled to response” and is civil engineer. Asks to substitute minority report – denied. Taking approved. Boston Post Tue, Jun 25, 1878 ·Page 4
Councilmembers also argued against majority plan and for minority plan.
The Boston Globe, Roxbury Canal Lands to be Taken, p. 2, Fri, Jul 12, 1878.
Diverting the sewage would in part remedy the matter, but would still leave much putrid matter in the canal
Boston Evening Transcript Mon, Apr 08, 1878 ·Page 8
An unwise provision was inserted in the charters of some of the private corporations organized for the purpose of reclaiming and filling areas of flats, by which it was stipulated that the corporations should themselves extend all sewers whose discharge would be obstructed by the filling. Such extensions were made without system, by building flat-bottomed wooden scow sewers, which were laid upon the soft surface of the flats before the filling was done. Cross-sections of various common forms of existing city sewers are shown on Plate II., Figs. 1 to 22. Fig. 22 shows Stony-Brook culvert, which constitutes the lower mile of Stony Brook, and is that part of it which is covered and used as a sewer.
Recommended to close that portion of the Roxbury Canal west of Albany Street. If this is done, the expensive of a siphon for the sewer in Albany street will be saved and the value of land reclaimed will more than be compensate for the expensive of filling it beside greatly improving the sanitary condition of the immediate vicinity. The sewage from South Boston is to be intercepted by a sewer to be built in Dorchester Ave St and First to 2nd st.
Boston Evening Transcript, Tue, Jun 13, 1876 ·Page 3
1887 – actions taken and now paper describes the “famous Roxbury canal lands” as no longer a “quagmire” but “not a beautiful garden.”
In some portions of the sewers earthly accretions form on the arch. When the sewer is surrounded by marsh mud these are turned black by sulphuretted hydrogen , sometimes they are colored yellow by iron, often they appear as white stalactites. In Claey soil, the arch seems to be about as clean as when laid.
The catch-pails under the ventilating man-hole covers are emptied as occasion demands. In some locations and at some seasons pails will be filled in less than a month.
In the spring when the ground is full of water much of it leaks into the common sewers and is by them carried to the interceptors. Sea water, at high tide, finds its way along some of the old box-sewers and leaks into them back of the tide gates. Should rebuilt many of the old sewers, in whole or in part.
Some of the tide gates were made of white pine and some of spruce. A few fof the latter, which have been in place for three years, already show signs of decay. Replace them with creosoted lumber.
1885 Main Drainage Works.pdf
“There is certainly a difference between offensive gases and the products of putrefaction of a dangerous kind.”
Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Sewerage: Before the Joint Committee of the City Council (May 10 1876)
When it rains and deposits are scoured out of the old sewers very much more filth is caught in the cages. The amount sometimes equals three or four cubic yards in 24 hours. They can back up the sewer in front of them. The filth was too wet to burn, and didn’t want to bury it, so dried it and burned it. Pump stations powered by coal
1885 Main Drainage Works.pdf
City of Boston knew in 1876 that house drains are of no avail “against the force of gases,” or “the additional force of the wind and tide.”
Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Sewerage: Before the Joint Committee of the City Council (May 10 1876)
Culvert Holding Up Ft. Point Channel Fill “thirty acres will be filled in after culvert is built”
City officials mentioned “potential development opportunity.” Mile long culvert . Coordinating with BR, MTA, and DPW – BRA resulted in “moving the culvert closer to the SE Exp. In order to not interfere with possible future building developments.” Talk of a Sears Roebuck. Meanwhile DPW has “dumped hundreds of tons of incinerator ash in some sections of the open area” And city is eyeing more than 100 acres total for south bay. The Boston Globe, Sun, Jun 07, 1964 ·Page 50
Complaints against Boston, Lowell Railroad Corporation, and Harford & Erie Railroad Co. for recent and ongoing attempts to fill South Bay and the marshland including placing roads and railroads on flat surfaces across the bay rather then elevating them.
Trustee of Boston want a solid embankment across the bay and the railroad already acted with “solid filling that has been unlawfully put into the bay”
Sanitary conditions require that South Bay should be deepened, so that its flats, impregnated with sewage matter, should not be exposed at every low tide to the sun. Commerce needs a deeper water in South Bay.
The westerly portion of the bay can only be deepened economically by using the material dredged out in filling up so much of the bay as lies east of the railroad. Such an excavation and filling would harmonize all interests. “
The Board has also requested the DA for Suffolk Co to edict George W. Gerrish for unlawfully building a wharf to Chelsey in violation of the four and fifth section so of Chapter 149.
Boston Post, Legal Proceedings, Thu, Feb 26, 1874 ·Page 4
One additional legacy of the river’s long human history is pollution from industry and sewage. By 1875, a total of 43 mills were operating along the lower Charles River between Watertown Dam and Boston Harbor (Charles River Watershed Association, 2004a). Thousands of gallons of untreated sewage and industrial wastewater entered the river daily through gravity drains, posing a major threat to public health (City of Boston, 1878). Concerted efforts to address the sewage problem began in the late 1870s
Weiskel, Barlow, & Smieszek, Water Resources and the Urban Environment, Lower Charles River Watershed, Massachusetts, 1630–2005, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2005
SULFIDES, HYDROGEN SULFIDE, & OXYGEN DEMAND
"Inner Harbor bottom sediments consisted mainly of a black, oily deposit that emitted. strong hydrogen sulfide (H2s) odors indicating organic decomposition. The oxygen demand of sewage and industrial wastes, as measured by the biochemical oxygen demand test (BOD), indicates the waste's potential or reducing the dissolved oxygen content of the receiving water. Adequate dissolved oxygen levels are necessary to support fish and other aquatic life. If dissolved oxygen becomes totally depleted, hydrogen sulfide gas is produced creating obnoxious odors and unpleasant environment for persons living or working nearby. The hydrogen sulfide given off may turn nearby houses, bridges or other painted structures black."
Joint Report on Pollution of Navigable Waters of Boston Harbor, US DOI and MA Water Resources Commission, April 1969
Joint Report on Pollution of Navigable Waters of Boston Harbor, US DOI and MA Water Resources Commission, April 1969
"The most offensive condition exists in the upper portion of the channel from Massachusetts Avenue to the vicinity of the Dorchester Avenue Bridge where the water is badly discolored and foully objectionable with masses of floating sludge and rising gas bubbles abundant. The degree of pollution present has caused the area to be referred to as an open cesspool."
1959 Senate Bill 0498. Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City Of Boston: A Comprehensive Report for the Filling and Improving a Portion of Fort Point Channel and South Bay. (1959).
1959 Senate Bill 0498. Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City Of Boston: A Comprehensive Report for the Filling and Improving a Portion of Fort Point Channel and South Bay. (1959).
"Wastes entering the Fort Point Channel severely polluted the water there. Qualitative sampling showed an absence of bottom-associated organisms in this channel. Sludge deposits in the Fort Point Channel were more than 3 feet deep, contained oily residues, and emitted foul odors. Hydrogen sulfide bubbles effervesced from the sludge in this reach, rose to the surface and burst, creating
readily apparent odors like those of raw sewage and rotten eggs."
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION, BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATER QUALITY CHARLES RIVER AND BOSTON HARBOR, MASSACHUSETTS July-August 1967, (January 1968).
readily apparent odors like those of raw sewage and rotten eggs."
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION, BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATER QUALITY CHARLES RIVER AND BOSTON HARBOR, MASSACHUSETTS July-August 1967, (January 1968).
Sulfides in Sewage and Their Effects
"The extensive investigations on the sulfide problem in the sewers of the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts was presented by Pomeroy and Bowlus (170). The conclusion was reached that sulfides are produced only by the slimes and sludge deposits, and not in the flowing body of the sewage. The origin of the sulfide is mostly, but not entirely, the sulfates in the sewage. Sulfide production takes place over a wide range of pH. The strength of the sewage, area of biologically active surfaces and the temperature determine the rate of sulfide production. The velocity of flow in a free-flowing sewer also plays an important part, since above a critical velocity the deposits and slimes responsible for the production of sulfides are scoured and the sewage is kept in a well aerated condition. Under these conditions sulfides which may be present are actually oxidized. The critical velocity is about 3 ft. per second. Minimizing pressure lines and points of high turbulence would also decrease sulfide production and subsequent sewer corrosion. Of the protective measures for concrete sewers, clay liners of low porosity are recommended. Other measures to curb the rate of sulfide production are: dilution of sewage, decreasing the B.O.D. of sewage by treatment, exclusion of industrial wastes of high temperature and organic content, mechanical or chemical cleaning of sewers, aeration and ventilation. The last measure is effective by drying out the walls and preventing the conversion of H2S to H2SO4."
Rudolfs, et al, A Critical Review of the Literature of 1946 on Sewage and Waste Treatment and Stream Pollution, Sewage Works Journal , Mar., 1947, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Mar., 1947), pp. 207-247.
"The extensive investigations on the sulfide problem in the sewers of the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts was presented by Pomeroy and Bowlus (170). The conclusion was reached that sulfides are produced only by the slimes and sludge deposits, and not in the flowing body of the sewage. The origin of the sulfide is mostly, but not entirely, the sulfates in the sewage. Sulfide production takes place over a wide range of pH. The strength of the sewage, area of biologically active surfaces and the temperature determine the rate of sulfide production. The velocity of flow in a free-flowing sewer also plays an important part, since above a critical velocity the deposits and slimes responsible for the production of sulfides are scoured and the sewage is kept in a well aerated condition. Under these conditions sulfides which may be present are actually oxidized. The critical velocity is about 3 ft. per second. Minimizing pressure lines and points of high turbulence would also decrease sulfide production and subsequent sewer corrosion. Of the protective measures for concrete sewers, clay liners of low porosity are recommended. Other measures to curb the rate of sulfide production are: dilution of sewage, decreasing the B.O.D. of sewage by treatment, exclusion of industrial wastes of high temperature and organic content, mechanical or chemical cleaning of sewers, aeration and ventilation. The last measure is effective by drying out the walls and preventing the conversion of H2S to H2SO4."
Rudolfs, et al, A Critical Review of the Literature of 1946 on Sewage and Waste Treatment and Stream Pollution, Sewage Works Journal , Mar., 1947, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Mar., 1947), pp. 207-247.
"Hydrogen sulphide has a very repulsive odor in low concentrations that may serve as a warning. Its presence in sewers and treatment
plants has been attributed to the decomposition of sewage. Its toxicity is comparable to that of hydrogen cyanide. Poisoning by hydrogen sulphide is of two types, namely, acute and subacute, causing asphyxiation and irritation (conjunctivitis, bronchitis,
pharyngitis, and depression of the central nervous system), respectively. Death from asphyxia is caused by paralysis of the respiratory center, while death from subacute poisoning is associated with edema of the lungs. The exact low limit of hydrogen sulphide concentration at which it ceases to act as a poison has not as yet been determined, but is evidently below 0.005 percent; 0.06 to 0.1 percent is sufficient to cause serious symptoms within a few minutes. In low concentrations hydrogen sulphide produces symptoms of headache, sleeplessness, dullness, dizziness, and weariness. Pain in the eyes, followed by conjunctivitis, is fairly constant, while bronchitis and pains in the che3t are frequent. Further poisoning produces depression, stupor, unconsciousness, and
death. The heart continues to beat after respiration has ceased."
R. R. Sayers, Gas Hazards in Sewers and Sewage-Treatment Plants, Public Health Reports (1896-1970), Feb. 2, 1934, Vol. 49, No. 5 (Feb. 2, 1934), pp. 145-155
plants has been attributed to the decomposition of sewage. Its toxicity is comparable to that of hydrogen cyanide. Poisoning by hydrogen sulphide is of two types, namely, acute and subacute, causing asphyxiation and irritation (conjunctivitis, bronchitis,
pharyngitis, and depression of the central nervous system), respectively. Death from asphyxia is caused by paralysis of the respiratory center, while death from subacute poisoning is associated with edema of the lungs. The exact low limit of hydrogen sulphide concentration at which it ceases to act as a poison has not as yet been determined, but is evidently below 0.005 percent; 0.06 to 0.1 percent is sufficient to cause serious symptoms within a few minutes. In low concentrations hydrogen sulphide produces symptoms of headache, sleeplessness, dullness, dizziness, and weariness. Pain in the eyes, followed by conjunctivitis, is fairly constant, while bronchitis and pains in the che3t are frequent. Further poisoning produces depression, stupor, unconsciousness, and
death. The heart continues to beat after respiration has ceased."
R. R. Sayers, Gas Hazards in Sewers and Sewage-Treatment Plants, Public Health Reports (1896-1970), Feb. 2, 1934, Vol. 49, No. 5 (Feb. 2, 1934), pp. 145-155
Dissolved Oxygen and Suspended Solids Impacts . The harbor modeling and the Charles River Basin model each showed that CSO and stormwater are not the major contributors to dissolved oxygen deficits and suspended solids. In the Charles Basin, the influence of the salt water wedge at the bottom of the Basin is the primary dissolved oxygen level control. In the Back Bay Fens, sludge deposits cause sizeable benthic oxygen demand. The harbor model calculated some dissolved oxygen levels near 4 to 5 mg/l, somewhat below the 6.0 mg/1 Standard, in the Inner Harbor. Sampling results showed similar concentrations. In the Inner Harbor, it is estimated that about 0.5 mg/1 of the calculated oxygen deficits is due to CSO, and about 0.75 mg/1 due to the treatment plant primary effluent and sludge discharges. The harbor model showed all beach and shellfish harvesting areas to have dissolved oxygen levels above the Standards.
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW PROJECT, Progress to Date Report, CAMP DRESSER & McKEE INC., Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Metropolitan District Commission, (Sept. 1979)
One fact which increased the danger arising from the damming up of the sewers and the consequent compression of their gaseous contents was that the house-drains connecting with those sewers were ill adapted to resisting this pressure. Most of them were built of brick or of wood.. usually leaky, the gases forced into them found ready egress into house.”
1885 Main Drainage Works.pdf
The physical condition of long sections of the sewer is poor as revealed by a photographic inspection of portions downstream of Dover Street in 1963. Substantial deposits of material have been found by soundings at manholes.
REPORT ON IMPROVEMENTS TO THE BOSTON MAIN DRAINAGE SYSTEM VOLUME 1 HUD Project No, P-Mass-—3306, Camp, Dresser & McKee (SEPTEMBER, 1967).
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW PROJECT, Progress to Date Report, CAMP DRESSER & McKEE INC., Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Metropolitan District Commission, (Sept. 1979)
One fact which increased the danger arising from the damming up of the sewers and the consequent compression of their gaseous contents was that the house-drains connecting with those sewers were ill adapted to resisting this pressure. Most of them were built of brick or of wood.. usually leaky, the gases forced into them found ready egress into house.”
1885 Main Drainage Works.pdf
The physical condition of long sections of the sewer is poor as revealed by a photographic inspection of portions downstream of Dover Street in 1963. Substantial deposits of material have been found by soundings at manholes.
REPORT ON IMPROVEMENTS TO THE BOSTON MAIN DRAINAGE SYSTEM VOLUME 1 HUD Project No, P-Mass-—3306, Camp, Dresser & McKee (SEPTEMBER, 1967).
eutrophication (nitrogen and phosphorus Enrichment)
"The Fort Point Channel in the Boston Inner Harbor area contained sludge with very high percentages of organic carbon (23.5 percent) and organic nitrogen (1.29 percent) similar to those of raw wastes from packinghouses, sewage, or rapidly decomposing sludge. The waters of this channel were severely polluted, and septic."
Biological Aspects of Water Quality Charles River and Boston Harbor, Massachusetts, July-August 1967, United States Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968).
Biological Aspects of Water Quality Charles River and Boston Harbor, Massachusetts, July-August 1967, United States Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968).
"Despite its economic and recreational importance, Boston Harbor is seriously polluted from discharges of human and industrial wastes into its waters. Boston is representative of the older cities along the United States's coasts whose major waterways are the sites of severe contamination resulting from the discharge of raw and partially treated sewage. Each and every day for years, some 450 million gallons of wastewater and 100,000 pounds of sludge entered Boston Harbor through discharges from the metropolitan sewerage system and the municipal systems joined to it. These discharges led to eutrophication and the accumulation of toxic substances and dangerous concentrations of disease-producing bacteria.
The harbor has been polluted almost throughout its history, and there is a longstanding consensus about the danger that it poses to the human and economic health of the metropolitan Boston area. Nonetheless, for years the agencies responsible for environmental protection in Massachusetts failed to take effective action to address this pollution. Similarly, the state legislature consistently failed to properly fund the few efforts that these agencies did make."
Harr, C. M. “Boston Harbor: A Case Study.” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 19, no. 3 (Spring 1992): 641–649.
The harbor has been polluted almost throughout its history, and there is a longstanding consensus about the danger that it poses to the human and economic health of the metropolitan Boston area. Nonetheless, for years the agencies responsible for environmental protection in Massachusetts failed to take effective action to address this pollution. Similarly, the state legislature consistently failed to properly fund the few efforts that these agencies did make."
Harr, C. M. “Boston Harbor: A Case Study.” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 19, no. 3 (Spring 1992): 641–649.
Eutrophication (nutrient loading) has and will continue to contribute to the shifting structure of New England salt marsh communities. Southern New England estuaries are among the most eutrophic in North America, whereas eutrophication symptoms are largely absent in northern New England estuaries (Bricker et al. 2007). Eutrophication is correlated with population density and land clearing in New England and is driven by sewage inputs to groundwater that are evident in salt marsh food webs (Bannon & Roman 2008). Al - though there are plans to reduce nutrient loading in New England estuaries through wastewater management, the cover of impervious surfaces is escalating and water quality continues to decline in most coastal areas (Bricker et al. 2007).
Denitrification and nitrogen storage in salt marshes reduce estuarine nutrient loading, protecting seagrass ecosystems (Valiela & Cole 2002) and reducing the frequency of hypoxic events and macroalgal blooms (Valiela et al. 1997). This ecosystem service, however, comes at a cost to salt marsh health and function. Anthropogenic nutrient loading can cause dramatic shifts in the community structure of salt marshes, which have historically been nitrogen-limited. Nitrogen enrichment can increase the aboveground productivity of salt marsh plants (Valiela & Teal 1974, Levine et al. 1998). But high levels of eutrophication can trigger consumer control by insects leading to reduced aboveground productivity (Bertness et al. 2008) and can reduce belowground biomass allocation and organic matter accumulation (Turner et al. 2009). Nitrogen enrichment reduces belowground competition for nutrients, favoring large aboveground biomass producers that win competition for light, stimulating the shoreward creep of cordgrass (Levine et al. 1998) and the seaward invasion of the common reed Phragmites australis (Bertness et al. 2002).
The invasion and spread of the exotic genotype of Phrag mites australis (Saltonstall 2002) has caused some of the most conspicuous changes to New England salt marshes in the last century (Fig. 3; Chambers et al. 1999). P. australis spreads rapidly, facilitated by freshwater runoff, nutrients, and disturbance (Minchinton 2002, Silliman & Bertness 2004), competitively excluding other salt marsh plants and forming a dense monoculture (Minchinton et al. 2006) that raises the marsh platform by increasing sedimentation and litter deposition, and lowers the water table by wicking away water through transpiration (Rooth & Stevenson 2000). While some salt marsh services such as carbon, nutrient, and pollutant sequestration are maximized in P. australis invaded marshes (Weis & Weis 2003, 2004, Hershner & Havens 2008), P. australis dominance causes a major shift in salt marsh structure and geomorphology, and drives the loss of plant diversity and the native plant assemblage (Silliman & Bertness 2004, Meyerson et al. 2009). P. australis invasion of New England salt marshes is among the most conspicuous consequences of human eutrophication, with a direct causal link to shoreline development (Chambers et al. 1999, Bertness et al. 2002, King et al. 2007). A forested upland buffer that intercepts and processes runoff remains the best way to protect salt marshes from upland eutrophication and P. australis takeover (Bertness et al. 2009b).
Gedan, Altieri, Berness, Uncertain future of New England salt marshes, MARINE ECOLOGY PROGRESS SERIES, Vol. 434: 229–237, 2011, doi: 10.3354/meps09084
Denitrification and nitrogen storage in salt marshes reduce estuarine nutrient loading, protecting seagrass ecosystems (Valiela & Cole 2002) and reducing the frequency of hypoxic events and macroalgal blooms (Valiela et al. 1997). This ecosystem service, however, comes at a cost to salt marsh health and function. Anthropogenic nutrient loading can cause dramatic shifts in the community structure of salt marshes, which have historically been nitrogen-limited. Nitrogen enrichment can increase the aboveground productivity of salt marsh plants (Valiela & Teal 1974, Levine et al. 1998). But high levels of eutrophication can trigger consumer control by insects leading to reduced aboveground productivity (Bertness et al. 2008) and can reduce belowground biomass allocation and organic matter accumulation (Turner et al. 2009). Nitrogen enrichment reduces belowground competition for nutrients, favoring large aboveground biomass producers that win competition for light, stimulating the shoreward creep of cordgrass (Levine et al. 1998) and the seaward invasion of the common reed Phragmites australis (Bertness et al. 2002).
The invasion and spread of the exotic genotype of Phrag mites australis (Saltonstall 2002) has caused some of the most conspicuous changes to New England salt marshes in the last century (Fig. 3; Chambers et al. 1999). P. australis spreads rapidly, facilitated by freshwater runoff, nutrients, and disturbance (Minchinton 2002, Silliman & Bertness 2004), competitively excluding other salt marsh plants and forming a dense monoculture (Minchinton et al. 2006) that raises the marsh platform by increasing sedimentation and litter deposition, and lowers the water table by wicking away water through transpiration (Rooth & Stevenson 2000). While some salt marsh services such as carbon, nutrient, and pollutant sequestration are maximized in P. australis invaded marshes (Weis & Weis 2003, 2004, Hershner & Havens 2008), P. australis dominance causes a major shift in salt marsh structure and geomorphology, and drives the loss of plant diversity and the native plant assemblage (Silliman & Bertness 2004, Meyerson et al. 2009). P. australis invasion of New England salt marshes is among the most conspicuous consequences of human eutrophication, with a direct causal link to shoreline development (Chambers et al. 1999, Bertness et al. 2002, King et al. 2007). A forested upland buffer that intercepts and processes runoff remains the best way to protect salt marshes from upland eutrophication and P. australis takeover (Bertness et al. 2009b).
Gedan, Altieri, Berness, Uncertain future of New England salt marshes, MARINE ECOLOGY PROGRESS SERIES, Vol. 434: 229–237, 2011, doi: 10.3354/meps09084
1880, Boston Archives
METHANE, Ammonia, CO, & CO2
"Gas hazards in sewers and sewage-treatment plants are those due to inflammable and poisonous gases and to oxygen deficiency. Inflammable and poisonous gases may be derived from three general sources: Low volatile liquids which enter as part of the sewage,
leakage from gas mains into the sewers, or the products of fermentation or digestion of sewage. The inflammable or poisonous gases usually found in treatment plants are methane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and possibly carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide.
Ammonia is a colorless gas of sharply penetrating odor. The symptoms of poisoning are acute inflammation of the respiratory organs,
cough, edema of the lungs, chronic bronchial catarrh, redness of the eyes, increased secretion of saliva, and retention of urine.
Carbon dioxide affects the respiratory rate according to its concentration in the air. It has been found that men can breathe air containing many times the amount of carbon dioxide found in our worst ventilated theaters and assembly halls, which, according to Rosenau, do not contain above 0.5 percent carbon dioxide. One half of 1 percent of carbon dioxide in normal air causes a slight and unnoticeable increase in the ventilation of the lungs; that is, a man exposed to one half of 1 percent of carbon dioxide will breathe a little deeper and a little faster than when in pure air. With 2 percent of carbon dioxide in the air the lung ventilation will be increased about 50 percent; with 3 percent to about 100 percent; with 5 percent to about 300 percent, and the breathing will be laborious; and 10 percent cannot be endured for more than a very few minutes. According to Sollmann, if oxygen deficiency is excluded by inhaling gas mixtures containing 20 percent of oxygen, no effects occur until the concentration of 3 percent by volume of carbon dioxide is reached. With this concentration there is some hyperpnea and discomfort; 8 1/2 percent produces in a few minutes distinct dyspnea, rise of blood pressure, and congestion which become insupportable in 15 or 20 minutes; but these symptoms disappear promptly in fresh air. The symptoms increase with 15 percent, but even 20 percent is not dangerous in an hour to animals and probably not to man. With 25 to 30 percent the stimulant phenomena pass into depression, with diminished respiration, fall of blood pressure, coma (generally without convulsions), loss of reflexes, anesthesia, and gradual death after some hours, the heart outlasting the respiration. With higher concentrations, the stimulation is still briefer. With pure carbon dioxide, death may occur m a few minutes as a mixed effect of. carbon dioxide and anoxemia.
The air in manholes and sewage-treatment plants may be deficient in oxygen owing to the oxidation of organic material or to dilution by inert gases from outside sources, such as natural gas (methane). Although oxygen is not usually considered toxic or noxious, a variation in its concentration cannot be neglected, as untoward effects develop if the variation is marked. Man is so made that he breathes easily and works best when the air contains about 21 percent of oxygen, the amount usually in air; but he is able to live and work, although not so well when there is less oxygen. When about 17 percent of the air is oxygen, a man at work will breathe a little faster and a little deeper, about the same as when he first goes from sea level to a height of 5,000 feet. Men breathing air that has as little as 15 percent of oxygen usually become dizzy, notice a buzzing in the ear, have a rapid heartbeat, and often suffer from headache. Very few men are free from these symptoms when the oxygen in the air falls to 10 percent. Haldane, the English physiologist, says that under certain conditions men may be conscious even with as little as 3½ percent of oxygen in the air they are breathing. However, under other conditions men faint or become unconscious when the air contains 9 percent of oxygen or more.
Ethane and methane, or natural gas, may be present. Their importance is not due to physiological or noxious action, but to the fact that they form explosive mixtures with the oxygen of the air, and this may result in disaster. Furthermore, the methane may dilute the oxygen of the air to such an extent as to produce the effects of low oxygen mentioned above.
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, tasteless gas, and odorless in diffused state. It burns with a blue flame in air. It exerts its extremely dangerous action on the body by displacing the oxygen from combination with the hemoglobin. Hemoglobin, the coloring matter of the blood, normally absorbs oxygen from the air and delivers it to the tissues through the blood. The affinity of carbon monoxide for hemoglobin is about 300 times that of oxygen. Because of this, even when only a small amount of the poisonous gas is present; in the air breathed into the lungs, much of the hemoglobin is locked up in combination with carbon monoxide and so cannot keep up its usual work of carrying oxygen to the tissues. These, because of lack of oxygen, cannot do their work properly. If they are smothered long enough, the tissue cells become damaged, and the injury to the cells may be permanent even if the patient survives. With increasing concentrations of carbon monoxide, the time required for a given amount of hemoglobin to combine with carbon monoxide decreases very rapidly, until with 1 percent concentration it may require only time enough to take a few breaths to produce a
saturation of 60 to 80 percent, which may be fatal. The symptoms of carbon-monoxide poisoning may be divided into two stages, the first covering the period beginning with normal and ending in syncope, and the second a depression of the central nervous system beginning in syncope, extending through coma, and ending in apnea."
R. R. Sayers, Gas Hazards in Sewers and Sewage-Treatment Plants, Public Health Reports (1896-1970), Feb. 2, 1934, Vol. 49, No. 5 (Feb. 2, 1934), pp. 145-155
leakage from gas mains into the sewers, or the products of fermentation or digestion of sewage. The inflammable or poisonous gases usually found in treatment plants are methane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and possibly carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide.
Ammonia is a colorless gas of sharply penetrating odor. The symptoms of poisoning are acute inflammation of the respiratory organs,
cough, edema of the lungs, chronic bronchial catarrh, redness of the eyes, increased secretion of saliva, and retention of urine.
Carbon dioxide affects the respiratory rate according to its concentration in the air. It has been found that men can breathe air containing many times the amount of carbon dioxide found in our worst ventilated theaters and assembly halls, which, according to Rosenau, do not contain above 0.5 percent carbon dioxide. One half of 1 percent of carbon dioxide in normal air causes a slight and unnoticeable increase in the ventilation of the lungs; that is, a man exposed to one half of 1 percent of carbon dioxide will breathe a little deeper and a little faster than when in pure air. With 2 percent of carbon dioxide in the air the lung ventilation will be increased about 50 percent; with 3 percent to about 100 percent; with 5 percent to about 300 percent, and the breathing will be laborious; and 10 percent cannot be endured for more than a very few minutes. According to Sollmann, if oxygen deficiency is excluded by inhaling gas mixtures containing 20 percent of oxygen, no effects occur until the concentration of 3 percent by volume of carbon dioxide is reached. With this concentration there is some hyperpnea and discomfort; 8 1/2 percent produces in a few minutes distinct dyspnea, rise of blood pressure, and congestion which become insupportable in 15 or 20 minutes; but these symptoms disappear promptly in fresh air. The symptoms increase with 15 percent, but even 20 percent is not dangerous in an hour to animals and probably not to man. With 25 to 30 percent the stimulant phenomena pass into depression, with diminished respiration, fall of blood pressure, coma (generally without convulsions), loss of reflexes, anesthesia, and gradual death after some hours, the heart outlasting the respiration. With higher concentrations, the stimulation is still briefer. With pure carbon dioxide, death may occur m a few minutes as a mixed effect of. carbon dioxide and anoxemia.
The air in manholes and sewage-treatment plants may be deficient in oxygen owing to the oxidation of organic material or to dilution by inert gases from outside sources, such as natural gas (methane). Although oxygen is not usually considered toxic or noxious, a variation in its concentration cannot be neglected, as untoward effects develop if the variation is marked. Man is so made that he breathes easily and works best when the air contains about 21 percent of oxygen, the amount usually in air; but he is able to live and work, although not so well when there is less oxygen. When about 17 percent of the air is oxygen, a man at work will breathe a little faster and a little deeper, about the same as when he first goes from sea level to a height of 5,000 feet. Men breathing air that has as little as 15 percent of oxygen usually become dizzy, notice a buzzing in the ear, have a rapid heartbeat, and often suffer from headache. Very few men are free from these symptoms when the oxygen in the air falls to 10 percent. Haldane, the English physiologist, says that under certain conditions men may be conscious even with as little as 3½ percent of oxygen in the air they are breathing. However, under other conditions men faint or become unconscious when the air contains 9 percent of oxygen or more.
Ethane and methane, or natural gas, may be present. Their importance is not due to physiological or noxious action, but to the fact that they form explosive mixtures with the oxygen of the air, and this may result in disaster. Furthermore, the methane may dilute the oxygen of the air to such an extent as to produce the effects of low oxygen mentioned above.
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, tasteless gas, and odorless in diffused state. It burns with a blue flame in air. It exerts its extremely dangerous action on the body by displacing the oxygen from combination with the hemoglobin. Hemoglobin, the coloring matter of the blood, normally absorbs oxygen from the air and delivers it to the tissues through the blood. The affinity of carbon monoxide for hemoglobin is about 300 times that of oxygen. Because of this, even when only a small amount of the poisonous gas is present; in the air breathed into the lungs, much of the hemoglobin is locked up in combination with carbon monoxide and so cannot keep up its usual work of carrying oxygen to the tissues. These, because of lack of oxygen, cannot do their work properly. If they are smothered long enough, the tissue cells become damaged, and the injury to the cells may be permanent even if the patient survives. With increasing concentrations of carbon monoxide, the time required for a given amount of hemoglobin to combine with carbon monoxide decreases very rapidly, until with 1 percent concentration it may require only time enough to take a few breaths to produce a
saturation of 60 to 80 percent, which may be fatal. The symptoms of carbon-monoxide poisoning may be divided into two stages, the first covering the period beginning with normal and ending in syncope, and the second a depression of the central nervous system beginning in syncope, extending through coma, and ending in apnea."
R. R. Sayers, Gas Hazards in Sewers and Sewage-Treatment Plants, Public Health Reports (1896-1970), Feb. 2, 1934, Vol. 49, No. 5 (Feb. 2, 1934), pp. 145-155
| sayers-gashazardssewers-1934.pdf |
"As biological degradation begins, the oxygen present in voids within the solid wastes is quickly used up by aerobic microbes unless the permeability is such that oxygen is continually replenished. As oxygen becomes scarce, facultative microorganisms begin anaerobic decomposition of the solid wastes. The decomposition processes generate hundreds of organic byproducts, many of which are water soluble. The major gaseous products of anaerobic decomposition are carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, and methane. Carbon dioxide, of course, is highly water soluble and forms carbonic acid in water. Hydrogen and methane are both combustible gases. As influenced by the many variables involved, decomposition may proceed for several years until all the waste is in a biologically stable form.
Numerous studies have shown that water will become polluted when allowed to come in direct contact with mixed solid waste. There are many materials in solid waste which are readily soluble in water, and other water soluble materials are generated as products of biological degradation. Still other materials become soluble when leachate acts on them. If there is any one critical factor affecting leachate quality and quantity, it is the amount of water that is allowed, or is able, to flow through the solid waste. Generally, as more water flows through, the pollutants that are leached out will increase. To a certain extent, as less water flows through, the pollutants picked up in the water tend to be more concentrated, but the rate at which they are transmitted to the surrounding environment is more often within the capability of surrounding earth to accept and attenuate many of them. If no water is allowed to flow into or through solid waste, leachate problems are unlikely to develop.
The gases given off by the biological degradation of solid wastes are potential sources of serious problems if not properly controlled. In dumps, the escape of odorous gases is common and very noticeable. Carbon dioxide dissolving in water passing through dumped solid waste forms carbonic acid which may result in high mineral contents if the leachate later percolates through acid-soluble formations. A serious gas problem encountered at dumps is the uncontrolled production and migration of methane. Methane explosions have, on occasion, been given national publicity because of loss of life and property. One on the most publicized explosions occurred in September 1969, in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, when methane became concentrated in an armory a short distance from the edge of a covered dump. The explosion killed three men and seriously injured five. Unfortunately, the gas is often reported as having originated "from a sanitary landfill" rather than "from the city dump".
US EPA, AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF POTENTIAL GAS AND LEACHATE PROBLEMS AT LAND DISPOSAL SITES, Hazardous Waste Management Division, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs (1973)
The large network of sewage canals criss-crossing Kolkata Metropolis carry considerable sewage load of about 4.5 million people. In an incubation study, substantial carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) production were observed in sediment samples collected from the canal bed at five sites, located at city outskirt, urban slum area, industrial area, residential area and agricultural area. The maximum weekly total production of CO2 and CH4 were 201.6, 137.4 mg kg−1 sediment, respectively, while N2O production was 37.1 μg kg−1 sediment. This translated into maximum annual production of 28609.5, 19498.6 and 5.3 t y−1 CO2, CH4 and N2O, respectively, from the sediment pool lying within 0.30 m depth in entire canal network. The CO2-equivalent (100-year time horizon) production in the sediment of canal network was estimated to be 0.56 Tg y−1. The estimated productions underline the chances of substantial emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O from such large urban sewage canal networks. Sewage canals as GHG source remains under-represented in greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories due to lack of understanding and data on GHG production in canal sediments and their potential subsequent emissions. This study highlights that sewage canals deserve serious consideration in the preparation of GHG budgets in regions hosting large network of sewage canals.
Majumdar, Deepanjan & Ray, Rupam & Biswas, Bratisha & Bhatia, Arti. (2023). Urban Sewage Canal sediment in Kolkata Metropolis (India) is a potent producer of greenhouse gases. Urban Climate. 51. 101688. 10.1016/j.uclim.2023.101688.
Numerous studies have shown that water will become polluted when allowed to come in direct contact with mixed solid waste. There are many materials in solid waste which are readily soluble in water, and other water soluble materials are generated as products of biological degradation. Still other materials become soluble when leachate acts on them. If there is any one critical factor affecting leachate quality and quantity, it is the amount of water that is allowed, or is able, to flow through the solid waste. Generally, as more water flows through, the pollutants that are leached out will increase. To a certain extent, as less water flows through, the pollutants picked up in the water tend to be more concentrated, but the rate at which they are transmitted to the surrounding environment is more often within the capability of surrounding earth to accept and attenuate many of them. If no water is allowed to flow into or through solid waste, leachate problems are unlikely to develop.
The gases given off by the biological degradation of solid wastes are potential sources of serious problems if not properly controlled. In dumps, the escape of odorous gases is common and very noticeable. Carbon dioxide dissolving in water passing through dumped solid waste forms carbonic acid which may result in high mineral contents if the leachate later percolates through acid-soluble formations. A serious gas problem encountered at dumps is the uncontrolled production and migration of methane. Methane explosions have, on occasion, been given national publicity because of loss of life and property. One on the most publicized explosions occurred in September 1969, in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, when methane became concentrated in an armory a short distance from the edge of a covered dump. The explosion killed three men and seriously injured five. Unfortunately, the gas is often reported as having originated "from a sanitary landfill" rather than "from the city dump".
US EPA, AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF POTENTIAL GAS AND LEACHATE PROBLEMS AT LAND DISPOSAL SITES, Hazardous Waste Management Division, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs (1973)
The large network of sewage canals criss-crossing Kolkata Metropolis carry considerable sewage load of about 4.5 million people. In an incubation study, substantial carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) production were observed in sediment samples collected from the canal bed at five sites, located at city outskirt, urban slum area, industrial area, residential area and agricultural area. The maximum weekly total production of CO2 and CH4 were 201.6, 137.4 mg kg−1 sediment, respectively, while N2O production was 37.1 μg kg−1 sediment. This translated into maximum annual production of 28609.5, 19498.6 and 5.3 t y−1 CO2, CH4 and N2O, respectively, from the sediment pool lying within 0.30 m depth in entire canal network. The CO2-equivalent (100-year time horizon) production in the sediment of canal network was estimated to be 0.56 Tg y−1. The estimated productions underline the chances of substantial emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O from such large urban sewage canal networks. Sewage canals as GHG source remains under-represented in greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories due to lack of understanding and data on GHG production in canal sediments and their potential subsequent emissions. This study highlights that sewage canals deserve serious consideration in the preparation of GHG budgets in regions hosting large network of sewage canals.
Majumdar, Deepanjan & Ray, Rupam & Biswas, Bratisha & Bhatia, Arti. (2023). Urban Sewage Canal sediment in Kolkata Metropolis (India) is a potent producer of greenhouse gases. Urban Climate. 51. 101688. 10.1016/j.uclim.2023.101688.
Explosive Atmospheres: These can occur with the uncontrolled release, inappropriate storage, or improper handling of flammable biogas, which poses serious fire, explosion, toxic, and asphyxiant risks. The release of large quantities of fugitive biogas from the AD plant has been widely described, and for methane (CH4) this is often in relation to the environ-mental impact or economic loss of biogas. Harmful Chemicals: Exposure to toxic compounds from the feedstock AD processes may cause ill health, asphyxiation, and death. For example, hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) is a potent respiratory and neuro-logical toxicant acting as a pulmonary irritant and asphyxiant. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can also cause irritation in the respiratory tract, throat, nose, and eyes, as well as headaches, dizziness, and nausea. Long-term exposure to VOCs can disrupt the functions of the central nervous system, cause organ damage, and some VOCs may cause cancer... Pressure Accumulation: Biogas components, including CH4 , H2 ,carbon dioxide (CO2 ), H2 S, or a mixture of these, can accumulate and over-pressurize digester vessels, pipework, and other gas containment structures. This may result in containment failure with leakage, fire, and explosion. Pressure build-up may be exacerbated by precursor events or engineering failures, such as pressure-release valve or pipework blockage. Beswick A, Evans G, Crook B, et al. Process safety at anaerobic digestion sites and its workplace impact: A rapid review. Process Saf Prog. 2025; 44(3): 359-367. doi:10.1002/prs.12688
“The ammonia is believed to be a result of the natural decomposition processes in the fill underlying the Site.”
Widett Circle Properties, Boston, MA, Prepared by VHB for MBTA, Phase I Initial Site Investigation, Tier Classification, & Phase II Scope of Work (Aug. 9 2024).
33 USC § 4008(4)
The term “hypoxia” means a condition where low dissolved oxygen in aquatic systems causes stress or death to resident organisms.
harmful algal bloom 33 USC § 4008(3)
The term “harmful algal bloom” means marine and freshwater phytoplankton that proliferate to high concentrations, resulting in nuisance conditions or harmful impacts on marine and aquatic ecosystems, coastal communities, and human health through the production of toxic compounds or other biological, chemical, and physical impacts of the algae outbreak.
The sewer system, being a significant source of methane emissions
Yuqing Yan, Jun-Jie Zhu, Harold D. May, Cuihong Song, Jinyue Jiang, Lin Du, and Zhiyong Jason Ren, Environmental Science & Technology 2024 58 (45), 19990-19998
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c04005
Widett Circle Properties, Boston, MA, Prepared by VHB for MBTA, Phase I Initial Site Investigation, Tier Classification, & Phase II Scope of Work (Aug. 9 2024).
33 USC § 4008(4)
The term “hypoxia” means a condition where low dissolved oxygen in aquatic systems causes stress or death to resident organisms.
harmful algal bloom 33 USC § 4008(3)
The term “harmful algal bloom” means marine and freshwater phytoplankton that proliferate to high concentrations, resulting in nuisance conditions or harmful impacts on marine and aquatic ecosystems, coastal communities, and human health through the production of toxic compounds or other biological, chemical, and physical impacts of the algae outbreak.
The sewer system, being a significant source of methane emissions
Yuqing Yan, Jun-Jie Zhu, Harold D. May, Cuihong Song, Jinyue Jiang, Lin Du, and Zhiyong Jason Ren, Environmental Science & Technology 2024 58 (45), 19990-19998
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c04005
SEWAGE SEDIMENT ECOSYSTEM
"Suspended sewage solids, in large, slow-moving bodies of water, tend to settle to the bottom, there to mingle with the mud and to form so-called, sludge banks. In such bottom deposits some of the organic matter and the bacteria contained therein may be undisturbed for long periods of time, to be later stirred up, tending to pollute the overlying waters. The characteristics of the bottom deposits in parts of Boston Harbor have been investigated by the State Department of Public Health.... At practically every harbor station the mud samples contained many more bacteria characteristic of pollution than did the water at the surface above. This was especially notable in Winthrop Bay, just west of the Deer Island outfall, in 1935 and in 1936, in the entrance to Hingham and Quincy bays, in the path of the sewage on flood tide from the Nut Island outfall. Some of the muds from the shore stations also showed high concentrations of the coli-aerogenes group, the shore on the west side of Roughs Neck, near the Wollaston Yacht Club and along the west side of Squantum and in the mouth of the Neponset River, being particularly badly polluted. Probably the organisms are deposited in the mud with the sewage solids and are not washed out to sea with the outgoing tide. The water above is changed during each tidal cycle."
Report of the Special Commission Investigating Systems of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal in the North and South Metropolitan Sewerage Districts and the City of Boston, Commonwealth of Massachusetts House, (June 15 1939).
As we have already said, when dealing with the Bacteria of the Soil, Nature is dependent upon the services of the "economic" organisms. Dead organic matter is broken down as the result of the vital activity of putrefactive bacteria (decomposing and denitriying). The ammonia which is thus liberated becomes oxidised first to nitrous and then to nitric acid by the agency of the nitritying bacteria, and the acids by their action upon bases, always present, produce nitrites and then nitrates. It is upon these substances that plant life finds nutriment. That the carbon is converted into CO2 and the hydrogen into water (H2O), and the "lost" nitrogen refixed in the soil, we have already seen. Now just as soil contains these Economic Organisms; to complete the cycle of nature, removing the dead remains of plants and animals, and assimilating them in such a way as to add to the fertility of the soil and recommence the cycle of life, so also in sewage we have all the required organisms normally present, whose business it is to render soluble the solid matters, and to split up the organic compounds into their simple elements, and then as a final stage in the process to oxidise these elements and so produce an effluent free from putrescible matter, but containing nitrates and other mineral substances. For practical purposes these two main groups of bacteria, the breakers-down and the builders-up, are looked upon as anaerobic or aerobic. The former are active in the absence of air, and their activity effects a decomposition of complex organic matter and allied substances. The aerobes are most active in the presence of oxygen, and part of their business is to convert urea into ammonia and ammonia into nitrate.
Is is impossible to lay down any exact standard of the chemical and bacterial quality of sewage. The quality will differ according to the size of the community, the inclusion or otherwise of trade-effluents and waste products, the addition of rain and storm water, and other similar physical conditions.Moreover, the sewage itself is constantly undergoing rapid changes owing to fermentation, and the competition of micro-organisms and the effect of their products. It is clear that they are the chief agents in setting up fermentative and putrefactive changes, for if sewage be placed in hermetically sealed flasks and sterilised by heat it will be found that these changes do not occur. Hence it will be at once apparent that no exact or hardand- fast formula can be laid down. Respecting the chemical condition, with which we have but little to do here, we may shortly say that the chief characteristic of sewage is its enormous amount of contained organic matter (yielding saline and albuminoid ammonia, etc.) in suspension or in solution.
Robinson H. The Bacterial Treatment of Sewage. Journal of the Sanitary Institute. 1903; 24(3):349-361. doi:10.1177/146642400302400312
Bacteria Count: Heterotrophic and hexadecane degrading bacteria were detected in well WSA-2 at concentrations of 220,000 cfulml and 230,000 cfu/ml, respectively. Heterotrophic and hexadecane degrading bacteria were detected in well SW-4 at concentrations of 46,000 colony forming units per milliliter (cfu/ml) and 38,000 cfulml, respectively.
Widett Circle Properties, Boston, MA, Prepared by VHB for MBTA, Phase I Initial Site Investigation, Tier Classification, & Phase II Scope of Work (Aug. 9 2024).
Report of the Special Commission Investigating Systems of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal in the North and South Metropolitan Sewerage Districts and the City of Boston, Commonwealth of Massachusetts House, (June 15 1939).
As we have already said, when dealing with the Bacteria of the Soil, Nature is dependent upon the services of the "economic" organisms. Dead organic matter is broken down as the result of the vital activity of putrefactive bacteria (decomposing and denitriying). The ammonia which is thus liberated becomes oxidised first to nitrous and then to nitric acid by the agency of the nitritying bacteria, and the acids by their action upon bases, always present, produce nitrites and then nitrates. It is upon these substances that plant life finds nutriment. That the carbon is converted into CO2 and the hydrogen into water (H2O), and the "lost" nitrogen refixed in the soil, we have already seen. Now just as soil contains these Economic Organisms; to complete the cycle of nature, removing the dead remains of plants and animals, and assimilating them in such a way as to add to the fertility of the soil and recommence the cycle of life, so also in sewage we have all the required organisms normally present, whose business it is to render soluble the solid matters, and to split up the organic compounds into their simple elements, and then as a final stage in the process to oxidise these elements and so produce an effluent free from putrescible matter, but containing nitrates and other mineral substances. For practical purposes these two main groups of bacteria, the breakers-down and the builders-up, are looked upon as anaerobic or aerobic. The former are active in the absence of air, and their activity effects a decomposition of complex organic matter and allied substances. The aerobes are most active in the presence of oxygen, and part of their business is to convert urea into ammonia and ammonia into nitrate.
Is is impossible to lay down any exact standard of the chemical and bacterial quality of sewage. The quality will differ according to the size of the community, the inclusion or otherwise of trade-effluents and waste products, the addition of rain and storm water, and other similar physical conditions.Moreover, the sewage itself is constantly undergoing rapid changes owing to fermentation, and the competition of micro-organisms and the effect of their products. It is clear that they are the chief agents in setting up fermentative and putrefactive changes, for if sewage be placed in hermetically sealed flasks and sterilised by heat it will be found that these changes do not occur. Hence it will be at once apparent that no exact or hardand- fast formula can be laid down. Respecting the chemical condition, with which we have but little to do here, we may shortly say that the chief characteristic of sewage is its enormous amount of contained organic matter (yielding saline and albuminoid ammonia, etc.) in suspension or in solution.
Robinson H. The Bacterial Treatment of Sewage. Journal of the Sanitary Institute. 1903; 24(3):349-361. doi:10.1177/146642400302400312
Bacteria Count: Heterotrophic and hexadecane degrading bacteria were detected in well WSA-2 at concentrations of 220,000 cfulml and 230,000 cfu/ml, respectively. Heterotrophic and hexadecane degrading bacteria were detected in well SW-4 at concentrations of 46,000 colony forming units per milliliter (cfu/ml) and 38,000 cfulml, respectively.
Widett Circle Properties, Boston, MA, Prepared by VHB for MBTA, Phase I Initial Site Investigation, Tier Classification, & Phase II Scope of Work (Aug. 9 2024).
Nutrients, primarily phosphorus, are a chief culprit for dramatic algae blooms that plague the River with blue-green algae during the summer months. These "blue green" algae blooms, are a form of bacteria known as Cyanobacteria, whose cells may release a toxin when they die. Exposure to the toxin can cause skin rashes and irritate the nose, eyes or throat, and if ingested can lead to serious liver and nervous system damage. Other harmful effects of the algae include reduced water clarity, nuisance scum, and reduced oxygen in the water which is necessary for a healthy fish habitat. (EPA, Environmental Challenges for the Charles River).
The 1939 Special Commission report documented that bacteria concentrate in bottom sediments: "at practically every harbor station the mud samples contained many more bacteria characteristic of pollution than did the water at the surface above... Probably the organisms are deposited in the mud with the sewage solids and are not washed out to sea with the outgoing tide."
"The Fort Point Channel in the Boston Inner Harbor area contained sludge with very high percentages of organic carbon (23.5 percent) and organic nitrogen (1.29 percent) similar to those of raw wastes from packinghouses, sewage, or rapidly decomposing sludge." (1968 Federal Report).
"The average value of ammonia nitrogen and soluble phosphorus were equal to or greater than 100 and 40 micrograms per liter, respectively, in all areas of Boston Harbor inland from its mouth... Such high concentration of nutrients caused overly enriched conditions that stimulated dense populations of phytoplankton which exceeded 1,000 per milliliter in about sixteen square miles, or 66 percent of the harbor." (1969 Joint Report)
Ammonia is evidence of ongoing decomposition. Widett Circle report: "Ammonia was detected in excess of the RCGW-2 standards... The ammonia is believed to be a result of natural decomposition processes in the fill underlying the Site." Concentrations: 17.2 to 26.2 mg/L - well above the GW-2 standard. This may be direct evidence that the buried organic material is still actively decomposing.
"In general, they indicated the presence of methane in fill samples from A-OW-1, A-OW-2 and A-OW-4." (1985 S&I Facility South Hampton Yard). Methane generation = active anaerobic decomposition.
Iron and manganese at these levels indicate strongly reducing conditions, such as organic-rich sediments with ongoing decomposition.
Albini, D., Lester, L., Sanders, P., Hughes, J., & Jackson, M. C. (2023). The combined effects of treated sewage discharge and land use on rivers. Global Change Biology, 29, 6415–6422. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16934
Lilian Lawson, Microscopic investigation of filamentous microorganisms in activated sludge process for sewage treatment, KTH Royal Institute of Technology (2018).
Bacteremic Superinfections of Patients with Bacteremia: Occurrence, Bacteriology, Mortality, and Duration of Hospitalization at Boston City Hospital during 12 Selected Years between 1935 and 1972, Maxwell Finland and Mildred W. Barnes, The Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 138, No. 6 (Dec., 1978), pp. 829-836.
TABLE 3 P832, SUPERINFECTIONS, INITIAL AND SUBSEQ. CUTLURES BETWEEN 1935-1972,
HOSPTIAL ACQUIRED, “OTHER” , DIED, SUPERINFECTION: LEPTOTHRIX
The aim of this study was the isolation and characterisation of the fungi and bacteria during the composting process of sewage sludge under a semipermeable membrane system at full scale, in order to find isolates with enzymatic activities of biotechnological interest. A total of 40 fungi were isolated and enzymatically analysed. Fungal culture showed a predominance of members of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota division and some representatives of Mucoromycotina subdivision. Some noticeable fungi isolated during the mesophilic and thermophilic phase were Aspergillus, Circinella, and Talaromyces. During the maturation phase, some lignin modifying enzyme producers, like Purpureocillium, Thielavia, Bjerkandera, or Dichotomyces, were found. Within this group, Thielavia and Bjerkandera showed high activity with production of laccases and peroxidases. In the bacterial culturome, a total of 128 strains were selected and enzymatically analysed. Bacillales, Actinomycetales, Pseudomonadales, and Lactobacillales were the orders most represented in culture-bacteria. Bacillus pumilus, B. stratosphericus, B. safensis, and Pseudomonas formosensis were the species most efficient in enzyme production, particularly peroxidases, polyphenol oxidases ammonifying activity, and amylases. These results showed that sewage sludge composting piles could represent a source of microorganisms which have adapted to adverse conditions.
Robledo-Mahón, T., Calvo, C., & Aranda, E. (2020). Enzymatic Potential of Bacteria and Fungi Isolates from the Sewage Sludge Composting Process. Applied Sciences, 10(21), 7763. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10217763
Geobacter bacteria are the only microorganisms known to produce conductive appendages or pili to electronically connect cells to extracellular electron acceptors such as iron oxide minerals and uranium. The conductive pili also promote cell-cell aggregation and the formation of electroactive biofilms. The hallmark of these electroactive biofilms is electronic heterogeneity, mediated by coordinated interactions between the conductive pili and matrix-associated cytochromes. Collectively, the matrix-associated electron carriers discharge respiratory electrons from cells in multilayered biofilms to electron-accepting surfaces such as iron oxide coatings and electrodes poised at a metabolically oxidizable potential.
Gemma Reguera, Microbial nanowires and electroactive biofilms, FEMS Microbiology Ecology, Volume 94, Issue 7, July 2018, fiy086, https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiy086
Cable bacteria have been identified and detected worldwide since their discovery in marine sediments in Aarhus Bay, Denmark. Their activity can account for the majority of oxygen consumption and sulfide depletion in sediments, and they induce sulfate accumulation, pH excursions, and the generation of electric fields. In addition, they can affect the fluxes of other elements such as calcium, iron, manganese, nitrogen, and phosphorous. Recent developments in our understanding of the impact of cable bacteria on element cycling have revealed their positive contributions to mitigating environmental problems, such as recovering self-purification capacity, enhancing petroleum hydrocarbon degradation, alleviating phosphorus eutrophication, delaying euxinia, and reducing methane emission.
Dong, M., Nielsen, L. P., Yang, S., Klausen, L. H., & Xu, M. (2024). Cable bacteria: widespread filamentous electroactive microorganisms protecting environments. Trends in microbiology, 32(7), 697–706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2023.12.001
This is a substantiallimitation because visual assessment means that only large massesat the inspection point and in the human field of view are recorded,and small, less dense outbreaks are excluded. Sewage fungus out-breaks are, therefore, only subjectively detected once they are largeenough to be having negative effects on the river community
We found that sewage fungus was significantly higher in water sam-ples downstream of final effluent input, and that filament numberswere an appropriate predictor of pollution events. Filament numberswere associated with conductivity, sulphate, nitrates and TDS. In this study, we demonstrate that a novel method which combinesmachine learning, microscopy and flow cytometry, is a fast and effec-tive approach to quantitatively detect sewage fungus in rivers. Overall,the abundance of sewage fungus filaments was high when outbreak were visible (Figure 2b), suggesting that regular monitoring of theirabundance will allow for early detection in, and efficient managementof, wastewater treatment plants to pre-empt the visible mats that areconsidered a pollution event and can have negative effects on fish andin-stream ecosystems. Sewage fungus was present in areas of the rivers that were char-acterised by low oxygen and pH, and high temperature, nutrientloadings, TDS and conductivity. This is in line with establishedfindings in previous studies (e.g. Curtis, 1969; Curtis & Har-rington, 1971; Passell et al., 2007). These environmental variablesare closely related to each other; for instance, TDS combines thesum of all ion particles including organic nutrients (such as hydro-carbons and urea) and salt ions (Carey & Migliaccio, 2009). In ad-dition, conductivity is a measure of the capacity of water to passelectrical flow which is directly related to the concentration of ions(e.g. chlorides, sulphides and carbonate compounds) in the water Carey & Migliaccio, 2009; Ekka et al., 2006; Haggard et al., 2005).In this study, we found that sites where sewage fungus occurred insignificant abundance were associated with waters with high con-ductivities (e.g. 900 μs/cm). We also found that high levels of sul-phates and nitrates, typical products of waste water treatments,were associated with presence of sewage fungus. This could havenegative implications for primary production, as stream cyclingof N can affect the nutrient supply available for phytoplanktonand aquatic plants (Palmer-Felgate et al., 2010). Moreover, highsulphate concentrations can imbalance the natural sulphur cycle(Hulshoff Pol et al., 1998; Silva et al., 2002), causing acidificationof surface waters and substrates, and resulting in a decrease of thespecies diversity and the vitality of many freshwater ecosystems(Silva et al., 2002)
Albini, D., Lester, L., Sanders, P., Hughes, J. M. R., & Jackson, M. C. (2023). Early detection and environmental drivers of sewage fungus outbreaks in rivers. Ecological Solutions and Evidence, 4, e12277. https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.12277
Colonial Boston drew its water from underground wells and rain-fed cisterns. Ex. 291, at 3-2. By the end of the eighteenth century, consumption began to outstrip the increasingly contaminated supply of natural water. Fern L. Nesson, Great Waters: A History of Boston's Water Supply 112 (1983) ("Nesson"). In 1796, a privately chartered company, the Aqueduct Corporation, sought to profit from the demand for clean water by building a network of gravity-fed, underground wooden pipes connecting Boston to Jamaica Pond. The company's efforts, however, did little to slake a rapacious public thirst. Ex. 291, at 3-1. Public officials ineffectually debated Boston's water problem for several decades without achieving a consensus. In 1845, a frustrated Boston Water Committee turned to John Jervis, the engineer who built New York City's Croton aqueducts, for advice.[3] Ex. 291, at 3-1. Jervis recommended that an aqueduct be built to carry water from Long Pond (Lake Cochituate) in Natick to a holding reservoir in Brookline. The City Council endorsed Jervis' proposal, and in 1846, the General Court passed the Boston Water Act. The Act established a three-member Cochituate Water Board, and authorized the issuance of $3,000,000 in public bonds. In 1848, the Cochituate water system, capable of delivering 18 million gallons daily of fresh water, was opened.[4] As indoor plumbing became more commonplace, the demand for water increased accordingly. In 1851, the Cochituate Water Board purchased the Aqueduct Corporation and connected the Jamaica Pond waterworks to the Cochituate system. In 1865, the Board began construction of a 731 million gallon reservoir at Chestnut Hill to serve a population now in excess of 175,000. Ex. 316, Att. 3, at 114. In 1878, the Board added six small reservoirs fed by the Sudbury River to the system. Ex. 291, at 3-1. By the 1890's, Boston and its burgeoning suburbs were again experiencing severe water shortages. In 1893, the Legislature ordered the State Board of Public Health to explore the feasability of a permanent solution. In 1895, Frederic Pike Stearns,[5] the Board's chief engineer, saw such a solution in the pristine watersheds to the west of Boston.[6] He recommended *160 that the south branch of the Nashua River be dammed to create a 63 billion gallon reservoir in Clinton, Massachusetts (the Wachusett Reservoir). Stearns based his recommendations on three contemporary factors: the sparsity of settlement and industry in the Nashua watershed, the relative purity of the water (which would improve through long storage in a large reservoir), and the availability of a supply propelled by gravity rather than pumping. Nesson, at 21. Stearns also urged that a unified water district encompassing the greater Boston metropolitan area be created. After devising a fee-sharing formula based on real estate values and population size, the Legislature adopted Stearns' proposals, and in 1895 created the Metropolitan Water District.[7] Interestingly enough, the political resolve that led to the adoption of Stearns' plan was heavily influenced by a distrust of filtered drinking water. The virtues of avoiding filtration seemed self-evident in 1895. Filtration had worked under experimental conditions, but it was too new and involved technology that could malfunction. Disruptions in water flow and the serious consequences of polluted water supply were thought best avoided altogether. Id., at 32. The newly-established Metropolitan Water Board purchased 4,100 acres of land in West Boylston and Clinton as the site for the new reservoir, together with 5,600 acres of the adjacent watershed. The Wachusett Reservoir, in its day the largest man-made reservoir in the world, was completed in 1906 under Stearns' oversight. Ex. 395, at 4-2. The Wachusett Reservoir was connected by two massive aqueducts, deliberately over-engineered to accommodate future expansion, to the Sudbury system and the Chestnut Hill Reservoir. Ex. 291, at 3-2. In 1922, Henry Goodnough, Stearns' successor, recommended the construction of a reservoir on the Swift River to collect its flood flows. He also proposed to channel flood water from the Ware River through a gravity-operated aqueduct to the Wachusett Reservoir. (Both of these projects had been originally conceived by Stearns in his master plan).[8] X.H. Goodnough, Proposed Extension of the Metropolitan Water District, Journal of N.E. Water Works Ass'n, June 1922, at 254. In 1926, the State Board of Public Health and the rechristened Metropolitan Water and Sewerage Board embarked on the second stage of Stearns' visionary scheme. Ex. 291, at 3-2. Despite fierce opposition from the four towns that were to be flooded, the Ware River Supply Act was passed on May 29, 1926, authorizing the construction of the Wachusett-Coldbrook Tunnel. See 1926 Mass. Acts, ch. 35. The Swift River Act followed on April 26, 1927, extending the tunnel to the Swift River. See 1927 Mass. Acts, ch. 111. The Ware River aqueduct was completed in 1931, and the Swift River Reservoir in 1939 (later rebaptized as the Quabbin Reservoir). Because of its size, the Quabbin Reservoir took seven years to fill. Eighteen miles long, with a holding capacity of 412 billion gallons of water, the Quabbin remains one of the largest man-made reservoirs in the world. Ex. 291, at 3-3.[9] *161 After years of intervening neglect, the Legislature in 1985 created the MWRA.[10] MacDonald, 1:25. The enabling statute established an MWRA Advisory Board consisting of representatives of each of the cities and towns in the MWRA's service area.[11] MacDonald, 2:12. The MWRA is responsible for maintaining 130 miles of aqueducts and 265 miles of water mains. Ex. 291, at 3-15. The constituent cities and towns are in turn responsible for maintaining the 6,700 miles of service pipes within their boundaries.[12] Id. The MWRA is funded by annual charges assessed to the member communities based on water use. Id. The member communities, however, set water rates for their residents. The MDC is responsible for monitoring the quality of water entering the MWRA system, and for managing the Wachusett, Quabbin and Ware watersheds. Ex. 291, at 3-15. The MWRA reimburses the MDC for the costs of watershed protection, and services the debt incurred by the MDC's watershed land acquisition program. Estes-Smargiassi, 2:103. The earliest recognized microbiological contaminants[13] of drinking water were the Rickettsia and Vibro cholerae bacteria[14] responsible for outbreaks of typhoid and cholera in the Dickensian urban conditions associated with the nascent Industrial Revolution. Because most bacteria thrive in the intestinal tract, they are often spread by fecal-oral contamination. Bacteria have relatively short lives and are highly susceptible to oxidizing disinfectants like chlorine and ozone. Some pathogenic bacteria like Legionella (associated with Legionnaire's Disease) and Mycobacterium avium (associated with opportunistic infections in immunocompromised individuals) occur naturally in the environment and breed prolifically in plumbing systems. They can also grow in water distribution systems. Rose, 12:129. Viruses are a second microbiological contaminant that pose a threat to the public drinking water supply. The smallest of the pathogens, viruses have no independent metabolism and are only able to reproduce by parasitically invading a host cell and using its genetic material to replicate. Those that are known to cause waterborne disease in humans are the so-called enteric (intestinal) viruses associated with acute gastroenteritis. Although more resistant than bacteria, viruses are vulnerable to disinfectants. Of the varieties of waterborne microbial organisms that pose a potential danger to the public water supply, two protozoans, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum cause the greatest current concern.[15]*162 This is because of their resistance to disinfection, prolonged life cycles, and high infectivity. Giardia was first identified as a disease-causing organism in the late nineteenth century. Giardia is an intestinal parasite and the cause of the disease giardiasis, the common symptoms of which are diarrhea and dyspepsia. Giardiasis is easily treatable. Giardia is transmitted fecally in a protective cyst that opens (excystates) when it becomes attached to the intestinal wall of an animal or human host. The shell-like structure of the Giardia cyst offers protection from disinfectants but is pervious to chlorine and ozone. Cryptosporidium parvum was recognized as a water contaminant in the early twentieth century, but was not identified as a human pathogen until the 1980's. Daniel, 4:132; Rose, 12:119.[16] Like Giardia, Cryptosporidium is common in surface water sources, including bodies of water generally thought to be pristine. In the human body, a Cryptosporidium parvum infection can lead to the disease cryptosporidiosis, which manifests itself in symptoms of chronic fatigue, gastric disturbance, nausea, weight loss diarrhea, and fever.[17] The symptoms can be fatal to persons with compromised immune systems, particularly those suffering from AIDS, cancer patients, and the very young or old. There is no effective treatment or cure for cryptosporidiosis, Rose, 12:121, although in healthy individuals the disease is self-limiting and usually runs its course in 7 to 14 days. Fecal-oral ingestion is a common form of transmission of the disease, but it may also be transmitted by direct or indirect contact with an infected person or animal.[18]
United States v. Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, 97 F. Supp. 2d 155 (D. Mass. 2000)
"Black Mayonnaise" in Boston Harbor (2009)
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Mastering Boston Harbor: Courts, Dolphins, and Imperiled Waters, Charles Monroe Haar, Harvard University Press, (2009)
1968
"The Fort Point Channel in the Boston Inner Harbor area contained sludge with very high percentages of organic carbon (23.5 percent) and organic nitrogen (1.29 percent) similar to those of raw wastes from packinghouses, sewage, or rapidly decomposing sludge. The waters of this channel were severely polluted, and septic."
"Wastes entering the Fort Point Channel severely polluted the water there. Qualitative sampling showed an absence of bottom-associated organisms in this channel. Sludge deposits in the Fort Point Channel were more than 3 feet deep, contained oily residues, and emitted foul odors. Hydrogen sulfide bubbles effervesced from the sludge in this reach, rose to the surface and burst, creating
readily apparent odors like those of raw sewage and rotten eggs."
"The highest percentages of organic carbon (23.5) and organic nitrogen (1.29) associated with harbor sludges were found in the Fort Point Channel. This reach was very intensively polluted, and septic. Such values are not unlike those associated with raw wastes from packinghouses, sewage, or rapidly decomposing sludge."
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION, BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATER QUALITY CHARLES RIVER AND BOSTON HARBOR, MASSACHUSETTS July-August 1967, (January 1968).
"Wastes entering the Fort Point Channel severely polluted the water there. Qualitative sampling showed an absence of bottom-associated organisms in this channel. Sludge deposits in the Fort Point Channel were more than 3 feet deep, contained oily residues, and emitted foul odors. Hydrogen sulfide bubbles effervesced from the sludge in this reach, rose to the surface and burst, creating
readily apparent odors like those of raw sewage and rotten eggs."
"The highest percentages of organic carbon (23.5) and organic nitrogen (1.29) associated with harbor sludges were found in the Fort Point Channel. This reach was very intensively polluted, and septic. Such values are not unlike those associated with raw wastes from packinghouses, sewage, or rapidly decomposing sludge."
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION, BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATER QUALITY CHARLES RIVER AND BOSTON HARBOR, MASSACHUSETTS July-August 1967, (January 1968).
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Then a new problem of eutrophication (the explosive growth of algae and other plants due to effect of nitrogen and phosphorus discharge) came in notice. It was concluded that after the secondary treatment, there is a requirement of removal of nitrogen, phosphorus, or both. In 1964 Downing et al. [38] showed that nitrification process depends on maximum specific growth rate of autotrophic nitrifying microbes which is slow as compared with the heterotrophic organisms. Therefore the sludge age has to be long to achieve low-ammonia concentrations in effluent.
Yadav, Bhoomika et al. “Introduction to wastewater microbiology: special emphasis on hospital wastewater.” Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering (2020): 1–41. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819722-6.00001-8
There are immense amounts of organisms which reside in active sludge. The most common groups are; bacteria, protozoa, metazoa and filamentous organisms. (Seman, 2013) Filamentous forms describe the form of the organism, which could be bacteria or fungi. A few organisms which are often suspected to be causing bulking and foaming are described below.
Sewage fungus is a classic bioindicator of organic pollution in streams and rivers. However, it has received limited scientific interest in recent decades, despite persistent occurrence in lotic ecosystems. The aim of this review is to provide an up-to-date assessment of sewage fungus, its composition and structure, and the environmental factors that influence its growth to support future research and mitigation interventions. We advocate for the term “undesirable river biofilm” (URB) to more accurately characterise the composition, location, and environmental consequences of sewage fungus. These filamentous or gelatinous growths found on the banks and beds of flowing watercourses are composed predominantly of bacteria, not fungi. Based on modern genomic analyses, we now know that URBs are composed of a diversity of microbial taxa, including those that have long been associated with sewage fungus (e.g. Sphaerotilus, Beggiatoa, and Zoogloea) and newer associated taxa (e.g. Rhodoferax and Thiothrix). While organic pollution is generally considered the main trigger, this review highlights the importance of other environmental factors, such as water velocity, river substrate, pollutant composition and loading, and shading, in the occurrence and persistence of URBs. To illustrate the widespread and continued presence of URBs in rivers, environmental surveillance data for England’s rivers were analysed. Between 2000 and 2020, environment officers documented 6,025 occurrences of URBs as part of a wider water quality incident reporting programme. Thus, URBs persist even in countries with stringent water quality standards and comprehensive wastewater infrastructure, suggesting they may continue to be a significant issue globally, despite limited public or scientific focus. We argue that in addition to tackling point discharge of organic pollutants, greater emphasis should be placed on understanding the impact of intermittent and diffuse pollution and altered environmental conditions on river ecosystems. To safeguard river ecosystems, a holistic approach is needed that considers pollution in combination with wider river functioning (e.g. river hydrology, geomorphology, biogeochemical processing, and riparian zones) and climate change. Future areas for study into the URB phenomenon are suggested, including more comprehensive monitoring of URBs specifically and river biofilm health generally.
Sewage fungus is a classic bioindicator of poor water quality for rivers (Harrison and Heukelekian, 1958; Quinn and Mcfarlane, 1985). The term describes gelatinous and filamentous growths found on the riverbed and other submerged substrates in flowing waters, particularly those impacted by organic pollution (i.e. saprobic conditions). Research conducted in the mid-20th century provided essential information on the composition and environmental drivers of sewage fungus growth. It identified key taxa that comprise the ‘fungus’ (Curtis, 1969), named the cause of occurrence as insufficiently treated wastewater effluent (Curtis and Harrington, 1971), and described its impacts on river ecosystems (Gray, 1987). As wastewater treatment improved from the 1960 s and 1970 s in many countries, sewage fungus growths decreased in occurrence and the topic disappeared slowly from the scientific literature (Whelan et al., 2022). However, sewage fungus has not disappeared from rivers; it continues to grow even in countries with advanced wastewater treatment systems, suggesting that organic pollution continues to be a problem. The presence of sewage fungus is widely accepted to be a robust and easily identifiable indicator of a highly degraded riverine ecosystem (Fig. 1). The high biological demand of organic pollution drives a positive feedback loop that enables the establishment and proliferation of sewage fungus, at the expense of much other aquatic life (Curtis et al., 1971; Gray, 1985; Hickey, 1988a, 1988b). Sewage fungus uptakes dissolved organic carbon readily and tolerates the low dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations caused by high microbial respiration rates. Through its rapid growth, it also creates an aquatic environment that is less conducive to other organisms. Sewage fungus uptakes DO at a rate 10–20 times higher than aquatic macrophytes of equivalent mass (Gray, 1987) resulting in a high biomass. Thus, sewage fungus can drive and maintain DO concentrations below minimal thresholds for other aerobic organisms. Even when organic pollution events end, the ecological and biochemical impacts of sewage fungus can persist for long periods (Hartwell et al., 1995; Pillard, 1995; Pillard and DuFresne, 1999). Studies have shown that sewage fungus outcompetes native periphyton (Gray, 1985), degrades benthic habitat quality (impacting, for example, invertebrates (Hirsch, 1958; Hynes, 1960; Lemly, 1998) and fish spawning (Curtis, 1969; Curtis et al., 1971; Smith and Kramer, 1963)), affects riverbank filtration and hyporheic exchange flows (Ahmed and Marhaba, 2017; Hiscock and Grischek, 2002), outcompetes native periphytons (Gray, 1985), and concentrates heavy metals and other toxic compounds (Flemming et al., 2016; Flemming and Wingender, 2010; Geng et al., 2019; Wuertz et al., 2000)
There are two primary reasons that the term sewage fungus is misleading. First, its composition is not majorly fungal. Instead, it is a diverse polymicrobial biofilm, bound within a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) (Gray, 1987, 1985). Second, while it has been predominantly observed near sources of untreated or inadequately treated sewage (Chonova et al., 2018; Curtis and Harrington, 1971; Forbes and Richardson, 1913; Hammond et al., 2021; Harrison and Heukelekian, 1958), its presence is not confined to these regions. Numerous other sources, such as industries and varied organic pollution outlets including airport de-icers, papermill effluents and agricultural runoff, have also been identified as contributors to its occurrence. Historically, several alternative names have surfaced, including heterotrophic biocoenosis (Wuhrmann, 1954); slime infestation (Harrison and Heukelekian, 1958); heterotrophic slime (Gray, 1985); and biological floc (Phaup, 1968). However, none of these names have been universally accepted or consistently used. Moreover, they do not accurately capture the unique composition and ecology of the sewage fungus phenomenon
Most notably, the genera Sphaerotilus, with particular emphasis on the species Sphaerotilus natans, emerged as pivotal components of URBs The genera Zoogloea and Beggiatoa have also been reported as important taxa in URBs (Curtis and Curds, 1971; Geatches et al., 2014).
Zoogloea biofilms typically inhabit freshwaters subjected to organic pollution, predominantly appearing in waters with relatively slow flows (Geatches et al., 2014), or on exposed surfaces within wastewater treatment plants (Hattingh, 1962; Unz, 2015). Metabolically, Zoogloea function via an aerobic metabolic pathway, but demonstrate substantial versatility with respect to organic carbon use (Unz, 2015; Unz and Farrah, 1976) but they favour organic acids, alcohols, and aromatic salts. For nitrogen assimilation, Zoogloea prefer organic nitrogen compounds and ammonia, but notably, they cannot utilise nitrate (Unz, 2015).
Beggiatoa is a genus of filamentous, sulphur metabolising bacteria which forms long filaments, ranging from 5 to 10 cm in length. Freshwater strains typically have cell diameters of less than 5.0 µm and re located at the interface of anoxic and oxic zones within sediments. that play a significant role in sulphur cycling. They utilise hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) as an energy source through the process of chemolithotrophic sulphur oxidation (Strohl, 2015). Beggiatoa is a facultative anaerobe. It uses oxygen as an electron acceptor in aerobic conditions and switches to nitrate in anaerobic environments. It thrives primarily at the interface between oxygen-rich and sulphide-rich zones, enabling it to utilise both metabolic pathways. Beggiatoa also displays greater selectivity and oxidises a smaller pool of carbon compounds than Sphaerotilus or Zoogloea, but it is reported to grow primarily on C2-4 organic acids and sometimes amino acids serve as a less favoured substrate (Strohl, 2015). Both freshwater and marine strains of Beggiatoa possess the ability to fix N2 and utilise various nitrogen sources, including nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and specific amino acids (Strohl, 2015). Other bacterial species Thiothrix II, Flavobacterium spp., and Flexibacter spp., have also been linked with URBs (Geatches et al., 2014) but there is a dearth of data on their abundance, distribution, and contribution to URBs in rivers affected by organic pollution
Other microorganisms are potentially significant components of URBs, yet current empirical evidence regarding their prevalence and functions is limited. For instance, fungi have been detected in URBs, including Leptomitus lacteus (Geatches et al., 2014; Riethmüller et al., 2006; Schade and Thimann, 1940). This fungus exhibits branching hyphae and has a distinct flocculant, plumose appearance. Discovered in freshwater environments, L. lacteus serves as an indicative species for waters containing organic refuse from sugar processing (Coker et al., 1937; Riethmüller et al., 2006; Schade, 1940). Notably, it can metabolize low molecular weight organic acids but not sugars, which are generally more bioavailable (Schade, 1940). Leptomitus lacteus can proliferate in acidic waters and grows well using high MW organic nitrogen compounds (such as amino acids but not ammonium, nitrate or nitrate) (Harrison and Heukelekian, 1958; Schade, 1940). Other associated fungi include Geotrichium candidum, Fusarium aquaeductuum, and Achyla spp. (Geatches et al., 2014). Additionally, algae such as Cladophora glomerata (Geatches et al., 2014), are also present in URBs though their roles within this context remain less studied. In stream biofilms, algae can produce a significant audit of organic substrate for heterotrophic biofilm microorganisms (Besemer, 2015) and may also play a role in the structure and organization of the biofilm matrix (Battin et al., 2007). Algal strands provide a scaffolding for S. natans’ growth (Quinn and Mcfarlane, 1985). Archaea and protozoa (e.g., Carchesium polypinum (Geatches et al., 2014)) make up a smaller fraction of the taxonomy of benthic stream biofilms (Battin et al., 2016; Besemer et al., 2012), viruses, although detected, are not believed to significantly affect URB growth (Battin et al., 2016). However, the knowledge gap as to how factors, such as source water microbiome, available nutrients (Olapade and Leff, 2005) and environmental conditions (Fierer et al., 2007; HallStoodley et al., 2004), determine the specific and unique URB microbiome remains. URBs are complex and diverse polymicrobial biofilms with varying composition. Whilst the taxonomic and functional focus of sewage fungus has been primarily skewed to bacteria, and to a lesser extent fungi and algae, there has been an underrepresentation of other microbial taxa that have been used as bioindicators of freshwater quality (Foissner, 2006; Parmar et al., 2016; Zaghloul et al., 2020). For example, protozoa are integral components of river periphyton and URBs and are well established indicators of poor water quality (Foissner, 1988; Kazmi et al., 2022; Nicolau et al., 2001).
Exton, Ben & Hassard, Francis & Medina, Angel & Grabowski, Robert. (2024). Undesirable river biofilms: The composition, environmental drivers, and occurrence of sewage fungus. Ecological Indicators. 161. 111949. 10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.111949.
Yadav, Bhoomika et al. “Introduction to wastewater microbiology: special emphasis on hospital wastewater.” Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering (2020): 1–41. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819722-6.00001-8
There are immense amounts of organisms which reside in active sludge. The most common groups are; bacteria, protozoa, metazoa and filamentous organisms. (Seman, 2013) Filamentous forms describe the form of the organism, which could be bacteria or fungi. A few organisms which are often suspected to be causing bulking and foaming are described below.
Sewage fungus is a classic bioindicator of organic pollution in streams and rivers. However, it has received limited scientific interest in recent decades, despite persistent occurrence in lotic ecosystems. The aim of this review is to provide an up-to-date assessment of sewage fungus, its composition and structure, and the environmental factors that influence its growth to support future research and mitigation interventions. We advocate for the term “undesirable river biofilm” (URB) to more accurately characterise the composition, location, and environmental consequences of sewage fungus. These filamentous or gelatinous growths found on the banks and beds of flowing watercourses are composed predominantly of bacteria, not fungi. Based on modern genomic analyses, we now know that URBs are composed of a diversity of microbial taxa, including those that have long been associated with sewage fungus (e.g. Sphaerotilus, Beggiatoa, and Zoogloea) and newer associated taxa (e.g. Rhodoferax and Thiothrix). While organic pollution is generally considered the main trigger, this review highlights the importance of other environmental factors, such as water velocity, river substrate, pollutant composition and loading, and shading, in the occurrence and persistence of URBs. To illustrate the widespread and continued presence of URBs in rivers, environmental surveillance data for England’s rivers were analysed. Between 2000 and 2020, environment officers documented 6,025 occurrences of URBs as part of a wider water quality incident reporting programme. Thus, URBs persist even in countries with stringent water quality standards and comprehensive wastewater infrastructure, suggesting they may continue to be a significant issue globally, despite limited public or scientific focus. We argue that in addition to tackling point discharge of organic pollutants, greater emphasis should be placed on understanding the impact of intermittent and diffuse pollution and altered environmental conditions on river ecosystems. To safeguard river ecosystems, a holistic approach is needed that considers pollution in combination with wider river functioning (e.g. river hydrology, geomorphology, biogeochemical processing, and riparian zones) and climate change. Future areas for study into the URB phenomenon are suggested, including more comprehensive monitoring of URBs specifically and river biofilm health generally.
Sewage fungus is a classic bioindicator of poor water quality for rivers (Harrison and Heukelekian, 1958; Quinn and Mcfarlane, 1985). The term describes gelatinous and filamentous growths found on the riverbed and other submerged substrates in flowing waters, particularly those impacted by organic pollution (i.e. saprobic conditions). Research conducted in the mid-20th century provided essential information on the composition and environmental drivers of sewage fungus growth. It identified key taxa that comprise the ‘fungus’ (Curtis, 1969), named the cause of occurrence as insufficiently treated wastewater effluent (Curtis and Harrington, 1971), and described its impacts on river ecosystems (Gray, 1987). As wastewater treatment improved from the 1960 s and 1970 s in many countries, sewage fungus growths decreased in occurrence and the topic disappeared slowly from the scientific literature (Whelan et al., 2022). However, sewage fungus has not disappeared from rivers; it continues to grow even in countries with advanced wastewater treatment systems, suggesting that organic pollution continues to be a problem. The presence of sewage fungus is widely accepted to be a robust and easily identifiable indicator of a highly degraded riverine ecosystem (Fig. 1). The high biological demand of organic pollution drives a positive feedback loop that enables the establishment and proliferation of sewage fungus, at the expense of much other aquatic life (Curtis et al., 1971; Gray, 1985; Hickey, 1988a, 1988b). Sewage fungus uptakes dissolved organic carbon readily and tolerates the low dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations caused by high microbial respiration rates. Through its rapid growth, it also creates an aquatic environment that is less conducive to other organisms. Sewage fungus uptakes DO at a rate 10–20 times higher than aquatic macrophytes of equivalent mass (Gray, 1987) resulting in a high biomass. Thus, sewage fungus can drive and maintain DO concentrations below minimal thresholds for other aerobic organisms. Even when organic pollution events end, the ecological and biochemical impacts of sewage fungus can persist for long periods (Hartwell et al., 1995; Pillard, 1995; Pillard and DuFresne, 1999). Studies have shown that sewage fungus outcompetes native periphyton (Gray, 1985), degrades benthic habitat quality (impacting, for example, invertebrates (Hirsch, 1958; Hynes, 1960; Lemly, 1998) and fish spawning (Curtis, 1969; Curtis et al., 1971; Smith and Kramer, 1963)), affects riverbank filtration and hyporheic exchange flows (Ahmed and Marhaba, 2017; Hiscock and Grischek, 2002), outcompetes native periphytons (Gray, 1985), and concentrates heavy metals and other toxic compounds (Flemming et al., 2016; Flemming and Wingender, 2010; Geng et al., 2019; Wuertz et al., 2000)
There are two primary reasons that the term sewage fungus is misleading. First, its composition is not majorly fungal. Instead, it is a diverse polymicrobial biofilm, bound within a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) (Gray, 1987, 1985). Second, while it has been predominantly observed near sources of untreated or inadequately treated sewage (Chonova et al., 2018; Curtis and Harrington, 1971; Forbes and Richardson, 1913; Hammond et al., 2021; Harrison and Heukelekian, 1958), its presence is not confined to these regions. Numerous other sources, such as industries and varied organic pollution outlets including airport de-icers, papermill effluents and agricultural runoff, have also been identified as contributors to its occurrence. Historically, several alternative names have surfaced, including heterotrophic biocoenosis (Wuhrmann, 1954); slime infestation (Harrison and Heukelekian, 1958); heterotrophic slime (Gray, 1985); and biological floc (Phaup, 1968). However, none of these names have been universally accepted or consistently used. Moreover, they do not accurately capture the unique composition and ecology of the sewage fungus phenomenon
Most notably, the genera Sphaerotilus, with particular emphasis on the species Sphaerotilus natans, emerged as pivotal components of URBs The genera Zoogloea and Beggiatoa have also been reported as important taxa in URBs (Curtis and Curds, 1971; Geatches et al., 2014).
Zoogloea biofilms typically inhabit freshwaters subjected to organic pollution, predominantly appearing in waters with relatively slow flows (Geatches et al., 2014), or on exposed surfaces within wastewater treatment plants (Hattingh, 1962; Unz, 2015). Metabolically, Zoogloea function via an aerobic metabolic pathway, but demonstrate substantial versatility with respect to organic carbon use (Unz, 2015; Unz and Farrah, 1976) but they favour organic acids, alcohols, and aromatic salts. For nitrogen assimilation, Zoogloea prefer organic nitrogen compounds and ammonia, but notably, they cannot utilise nitrate (Unz, 2015).
Beggiatoa is a genus of filamentous, sulphur metabolising bacteria which forms long filaments, ranging from 5 to 10 cm in length. Freshwater strains typically have cell diameters of less than 5.0 µm and re located at the interface of anoxic and oxic zones within sediments. that play a significant role in sulphur cycling. They utilise hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) as an energy source through the process of chemolithotrophic sulphur oxidation (Strohl, 2015). Beggiatoa is a facultative anaerobe. It uses oxygen as an electron acceptor in aerobic conditions and switches to nitrate in anaerobic environments. It thrives primarily at the interface between oxygen-rich and sulphide-rich zones, enabling it to utilise both metabolic pathways. Beggiatoa also displays greater selectivity and oxidises a smaller pool of carbon compounds than Sphaerotilus or Zoogloea, but it is reported to grow primarily on C2-4 organic acids and sometimes amino acids serve as a less favoured substrate (Strohl, 2015). Both freshwater and marine strains of Beggiatoa possess the ability to fix N2 and utilise various nitrogen sources, including nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and specific amino acids (Strohl, 2015). Other bacterial species Thiothrix II, Flavobacterium spp., and Flexibacter spp., have also been linked with URBs (Geatches et al., 2014) but there is a dearth of data on their abundance, distribution, and contribution to URBs in rivers affected by organic pollution
Other microorganisms are potentially significant components of URBs, yet current empirical evidence regarding their prevalence and functions is limited. For instance, fungi have been detected in URBs, including Leptomitus lacteus (Geatches et al., 2014; Riethmüller et al., 2006; Schade and Thimann, 1940). This fungus exhibits branching hyphae and has a distinct flocculant, plumose appearance. Discovered in freshwater environments, L. lacteus serves as an indicative species for waters containing organic refuse from sugar processing (Coker et al., 1937; Riethmüller et al., 2006; Schade, 1940). Notably, it can metabolize low molecular weight organic acids but not sugars, which are generally more bioavailable (Schade, 1940). Leptomitus lacteus can proliferate in acidic waters and grows well using high MW organic nitrogen compounds (such as amino acids but not ammonium, nitrate or nitrate) (Harrison and Heukelekian, 1958; Schade, 1940). Other associated fungi include Geotrichium candidum, Fusarium aquaeductuum, and Achyla spp. (Geatches et al., 2014). Additionally, algae such as Cladophora glomerata (Geatches et al., 2014), are also present in URBs though their roles within this context remain less studied. In stream biofilms, algae can produce a significant audit of organic substrate for heterotrophic biofilm microorganisms (Besemer, 2015) and may also play a role in the structure and organization of the biofilm matrix (Battin et al., 2007). Algal strands provide a scaffolding for S. natans’ growth (Quinn and Mcfarlane, 1985). Archaea and protozoa (e.g., Carchesium polypinum (Geatches et al., 2014)) make up a smaller fraction of the taxonomy of benthic stream biofilms (Battin et al., 2016; Besemer et al., 2012), viruses, although detected, are not believed to significantly affect URB growth (Battin et al., 2016). However, the knowledge gap as to how factors, such as source water microbiome, available nutrients (Olapade and Leff, 2005) and environmental conditions (Fierer et al., 2007; HallStoodley et al., 2004), determine the specific and unique URB microbiome remains. URBs are complex and diverse polymicrobial biofilms with varying composition. Whilst the taxonomic and functional focus of sewage fungus has been primarily skewed to bacteria, and to a lesser extent fungi and algae, there has been an underrepresentation of other microbial taxa that have been used as bioindicators of freshwater quality (Foissner, 2006; Parmar et al., 2016; Zaghloul et al., 2020). For example, protozoa are integral components of river periphyton and URBs and are well established indicators of poor water quality (Foissner, 1988; Kazmi et al., 2022; Nicolau et al., 2001).
Exton, Ben & Hassard, Francis & Medina, Angel & Grabowski, Robert. (2024). Undesirable river biofilms: The composition, environmental drivers, and occurrence of sewage fungus. Ecological Indicators. 161. 111949. 10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.111949.
Fort Point Channel and South Bay, Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City of Boston, Senate — No. 498 (1959).
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"The bed of the tidal stream is dock mud or silt that has become septic over a long period of time from the discharge of diluted sanitary sewage, decaying vegetable matter and fuel oil. As much of the dock mud is exposed to the atmosphere at low tide, its septic condition emanates foul odors that permeate the atmosphere for a mile or more adjacent to its source, a reprehensible condition in view of the proximity of City Hospital.
This condition has been greatly aggravated by the construction of that part of the John F. Fitzgerald Expressway adjacent to the tidal stream because the embankment of the expressway that extends into the tidal stream has displaced the dock mud causing mud rolls which not only disseminate foul odors but have created a hazard as was demonstrated recently when two children became mired in the mud up to their armpits and nearly lost their lives. Aside from a sanitary viewpoint, there is also an esthetic consideration.
The very appearance of the tidal stream at any stage of the tide, but particularly at low tide when the flats are exposed, is revolting. To tolerate such a condition adjacent to a modem highway is unthinkable. The situation should be corrected without delay."
Fort Point Channel and South Bay, Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City of Boston, Senate — No. 498 (1959).
This condition has been greatly aggravated by the construction of that part of the John F. Fitzgerald Expressway adjacent to the tidal stream because the embankment of the expressway that extends into the tidal stream has displaced the dock mud causing mud rolls which not only disseminate foul odors but have created a hazard as was demonstrated recently when two children became mired in the mud up to their armpits and nearly lost their lives. Aside from a sanitary viewpoint, there is also an esthetic consideration.
The very appearance of the tidal stream at any stage of the tide, but particularly at low tide when the flats are exposed, is revolting. To tolerate such a condition adjacent to a modem highway is unthinkable. The situation should be corrected without delay."
Fort Point Channel and South Bay, Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City of Boston, Senate — No. 498 (1959).
Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City of Boston, Senate — No. 498 (1959).
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Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City of Boston, Senate — No. 498 (1959).
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Report of the Special Commission Relative to Filling and Improving South Bay and Part of Fort Point Channel in the City of Boston, Senate — No. 498 (1959).
"The Boston Harbor Survey (1972) water sampling and analysis program was conducted between June and October for the DPC. The analyses show very high coliform counts, indicative of wastewater. Fort Point Channel now receives combined sewage and stormwater from the Roxbury Canal and Dorchester Brook conduits, and from combined overflows along the length of the channel.
Phosphate counts are also high indicating the presence of phosphorus which induces growth of algal life, and results in a depletion of dissolved oxygen content of water in the channel. Four of the eight samples had a dissolved oxygen content less than the 3 mg/l minimum criteria for class SC waters as set by the DWPC.
Both Fort Point Channel and the Inner Harbor have been classified by the DWPC as SC waters."
Roxbury Canal/Dorchester Brook Conduit water sample testing results showed 7,400,000 mg/l of coliform, 6,900,000 mg/l of fecal coliform, 1.2 mg/l of phosphates, 0 mg/l dissolved oxygen, 26 mg/l Biochemical Oxygen Demand, and 175 mg/l Total Suspended Solids. The sediment at the mouth of Fort Point Channel was also tested and dried results showed 39.4 volatile solids, 3.9 Kjeldahl Nitrogen, 110 COD, 0.13 Lead, 0.68 Oil/Grease, and 0.18 Zinc.
1975 Supplement to 1967 Report on Improvements to the Boston Main Drainage System, Camp, Dresser & McKee for City of Boston, Commissioner of Public Works (Nov. 24 1975).
Phosphate counts are also high indicating the presence of phosphorus which induces growth of algal life, and results in a depletion of dissolved oxygen content of water in the channel. Four of the eight samples had a dissolved oxygen content less than the 3 mg/l minimum criteria for class SC waters as set by the DWPC.
Both Fort Point Channel and the Inner Harbor have been classified by the DWPC as SC waters."
Roxbury Canal/Dorchester Brook Conduit water sample testing results showed 7,400,000 mg/l of coliform, 6,900,000 mg/l of fecal coliform, 1.2 mg/l of phosphates, 0 mg/l dissolved oxygen, 26 mg/l Biochemical Oxygen Demand, and 175 mg/l Total Suspended Solids. The sediment at the mouth of Fort Point Channel was also tested and dried results showed 39.4 volatile solids, 3.9 Kjeldahl Nitrogen, 110 COD, 0.13 Lead, 0.68 Oil/Grease, and 0.18 Zinc.
1975 Supplement to 1967 Report on Improvements to the Boston Main Drainage System, Camp, Dresser & McKee for City of Boston, Commissioner of Public Works (Nov. 24 1975).
Water Monitoring & Pathogens
“In some portions of the sewers earthy accretions form on the arch. Where the sewer is surrounded by marsh mud these are turned black by sulphuretted hydrogen, sometimes they are colored yellow by iron, often they appear as white stalactites. In clayey soil the arch seems to be about as clean as when laid.” (Main Drainage Works, 1885).
"Overall, pathogenic viruses were detected in less than one-third (29%) of samples. This is similar to virus prevalence rates reported at beaches in Italy and California, although higher than the 8% found at beaches in Hawaii. Virus prevalence higher than we found in Boston Harbor has been reported in Galveston Bay, Texas (40-59%); at beaches in Patras, Greece (83-90%); and in the Florida Keys (79-93%) (Griffin et al, 2003). Of the human viruses tested, enteroviruses were most frequently detected—in up to 26% of harbor samples.
There were no significant differences between the rates of viral pathogen detection or viral pathogen densities in dry and wet weather. This is in contrast to typical patterns of indicator bacteria in Boston Harbor, which are generally found at higher levels in wet weather. The typically “spiky” distribution of pathogenic viruses in time, the relatively low numbers of pathogenic viruses present, coupled with strong tidal mixing in the harbor and the perhaps slower rates of die-off or settling of pathogenic viruses may obscure the expected pattern of greater prevalence in wet weather.
Two harbor sampling locations (Stations 014 and 052) were near discharges from CSO treatment facilities (Prison Point and Somerville Marginal, respectively). Pathogenic virus prevalence in wet weather was not higher than in dry weather, implying that there are multiple sources of pathogens.
Unlike pathogenic viruses, coliphages at three harbor locations (mouth of Charles River, mouth of Fort Point Channel, and Carson Beach) had significantly higher counts in wet weather. There were no significant relationships among viral pathogen presence and any of the bacterial or coliphage indicators presumed to predict pathogenic virus presence. Although we had anticipated that coliphages would better correlate with the presence of viral pathogens than the traditional bacteria indicators, our data did not confirm this.
In contrast to Boston Harbor, in the Charles River there was an effect of wet weather on viral pathogen prevalence, doubling the prevalence rate from 18% to 37%. This may reflect the relatively greater loading from stormwater and/or CSO on the relatively smaller volume of receiving water in the river, compared to the harbor. There were spatial differences in viral prevalence within the Charles segment, with the lowest prevalence upstream, the greatest prevalence at the BU Bridge, and slightly less prevalence in the “basin.” Wet weather detection of pathogenic viruses at the BU Bridge station was about the same with or without antecedent Cottage Farm discharges. Surprisingly, although the basin generally has the lowest bacteria counts (Coughlin, in prep) pathogenic viruses were detected there more consistently (in wet and dry weather) than upstream. Adenovirus and enterovirus were the only types of viral pathogens detected in the river, in contrast to the harbor, where all the types of virus tested were found.
Unlike pathogenic viruses, coliphages at three harbor locations (mouth of Charles River, mouth of Fort Point Channel, and Carson Beach) had significantly higher counts in wet weather. There were no significant relationships among viral pathogen presence and any of the bacterial or coliphage indicators presumed to predict pathogenic virus presence. Although we had anticipated that coliphages would better correlate with the presence of viral pathogens than the traditional bacteria indicators, our data did not confirm this."
MWRA Virus Report: 1995-2003, Study of anthropogenic viruses in Boston Harbor, Charles River, Cottage Farm CSO Treatment Facility and Deer Island Treatment Plant 1995-2003, Report ENQUAD 2004-15 (December 2004)
Exposure to various microorganisms can be hazardous to human health. Some of these microorganisms are pathogenic, causing infections, inflammation, or toxicity. Exposure may be due to direct contact or inhalation. Some microorganisms cause allergic disease, particularly airborne fungal or bacterial spores. These are often present in large numbers when decomposing organic matter is handled
Beswick A, Evans G, Crook B, et al. Process safety at anaerobic digestion sites and its workplace impact: A rapid review. Process Saf Prog. 2025; 44(3): 359-367. doi:10.1002/prs.12688
Haley, Beth M et al. “Association between Combined Sewer Overflow Events and Gastrointestinal Illness in Massachusetts Municipalities with and without River-Sourced Drinking Water, 2014-2019.” Environmental health perspectives vol. 132,5 (2024): 57008. doi:10.1289/EHP14213
Discussion: In municipalities bordering a CSO-impacted river in Massachusetts, extreme CSO events are associated with higher risk of AGI within 4 days. The largest CSO events are associated with increased risk of AGI regardless of drinking water source. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP14213.
Mass & Cass runoff triggers appeal to CDC to test Fort Point Channel water
August 2, 2023
https://www.bostonherald.com/2023/08/02/mass-cass-runoff-triggers-appeal-to-cdc-to-test-fort-point-channel-water/
Sewage discharges reported across Boston, officials warn of ‘bacteria or other pollutants’
December 12, 2024
https://www.bostonherald.com/2024/12/12/sewage-discharges-reported-across-boston-officials-warn-of-bacteria-or-other-pollutants/
Pausan, Manuela-Raluca et al. “The sanitary indoor environment-a potential source for intact human-associated anaerobes.” NPJ biofilms and microbiomes vol. 8,1 44. 1 Jun. 2022, doi:10.1038/s41522-022-00305-z
Rain events significantly impacted the microbial composition in the sewers and IWW, largely due to the prevalence of combined sewer lines. Under dry conditions, we observed a shift in bacterial composition during transportation: SWW near households was dominated by gut bacteria, and as it reached the WWTP as IWW, biofilm and sediment bacteria (sewer microbiome) became more prevalent. This shift was amplified during rain, caused by the detachment and suspension of biofilms and sediments. The effect
was especially pronounced after a dry period followed by heavy rainfall (first f lush), as the amount of sewer biomass present depended on the time available for growth. First f lush events can introduce significant biomass to WWTPs.
Marie Riisgaard-Jensen, Rodrigo Maia Valença, Miriam Peces, Per Halkjær Nielsen, Sewer microbiomes shape microbial community composition and dynamics of wastewater treatment plants, The ISME Journal, Volume 19, Issue 1, January 2025, wraf213, https://doi.org/10.1093/ismejo/wraf213
THE CHEMICAL AND BACTERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE SEWAGE DISCHARGED INTO BOSTON HARBOR FROM THE SOUTH METROPOLITAN DISTRICT. WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DIURNAL AND SEASONAL VARIATIONS Author(s): C.-E. A. Winslow and Earle B. Phelps Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases , May, 1905, Supplement No. 1 (May, 1905), pp. 175-208
Water polluted by wastes from warm-blooded animals, including humans, frequently contain pathogenic bacteria. Ingestion of these.
pathogens by drinking polluted. water or by eating raw or partially cooked shellfish grown in these waters can cause gastrointestinal
diseases such as typhoid fever, dysentery and diarrhea. The infectious hepatitis virus, as well as other enteric viruses, may also be present. Body contact with water polluted by bacteria can also cause eye, ear, nose, throat or skin infections. Therefore, bacterial pollution presents a health hazard, not only to those who come in contact with polluted waters, but also to those who eat shellfish taken from the waters.
Tests for pathogenic bacteria of the genus Salmonella were conducted in Boston Harbor. Three of the five sampling swabs placed in the harbor to collect these organisms were positive for Salmonellae. Since almost all serotypes of Salmonella are known to be disease producers in warm-blooded animals, including man, their presence in these waters is proof of a continuing health hazard.
The oxygen demand of sewage and industrial wastes, as measured by the biochemical oxygen demand test, indicates the waste's potential for reducing the dissolved oxygen content of the receiving water. Adequate levels of dissolved oxygen are necessary to support fish and other aquatic life. If dissolved oxygen becomes totally depleted, obnoxious odors, mostly from hydrogen sulfide gas result, causing an unpleasant environment for persons living or working nearby. The hydrogen sulfide given off may turn nearby house, bridges or other painted structures black.
The average value of ammonia nitrogen and soluble phosphorus were equal to or greater than 100 and 40 micrograms per liter,
respectively, in all are of Boston Harbor inland from its mouth near Massachusetts Bay. Such high concentration of nutrients caused. overly enriched conditions that stimulated dense populations of phytoplankton which exceeded 1,000 per milliliter in about sixteen square miles, or 66 percent of the harbor.
In Winthrop Bay, decomposing masses of sea. lettuce have caused hydrogen sulfide emissions sufficient to discolor paint on nearby dwellings.
Municipal and industrial wastes discharged into the receiving waters of Boston Harbor resulted in extensive deposits of decaying
organic atter and incorporated oily residues covering much of the harbor bed. Oily sludge deposits in the Fort Point Channel were more than three feet deep. Hydrogen sulfide gas bubbles effervescing from the sludge in this reach, rose to the surface and burst, creating the odor of rotten eggs. Although not as deep, sludge with similar oil composition and hydrogen sulfide odor was found in several other areas.
The presence of high percentages of organic carbon and organic nitrogen is an indication of sludge deposits resulting from the discharge of municipal and industrial wastes, while sludges low in these organics may be considered inorganic, or "natural" ·deposits. The highest percentages of organic carbon (23.5) and organic nitrogen (1.29) associated with harbor sludges were :found in the Fort Point Channel. This reach was intensively polluted ·and septic. • Such values are similar to those associated with raw wastes from packinghouses, sewage or rapidly decomposing sludge. In samples from. the remaining harbor stations, organic carbon varied from 0.4 to 5.5 percent, and organic nitrogen varied from o.o4 to o.41 percent."
REPORT ON POLLUTION OF THE NAVIGABLE WATERS OF BOSTON HARBOR, FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION (MAY 1968)
The researchers also developed a new method to allow early detection of potentially dangerous outbreaks of 'sewage fungus’. This is a complex mix of fungus, algae, and bacteria which forms large masses when there are high organic nutrient levels. They not only cause unpleasant smells, but severely reduce oxygen levels in water which can adversely affect all river species, and cause mass fish mortality.
The best model to predict nutrient concentration and sewage fungus abundance included an interaction between sampling month and treated sewage discharge. We detected a higher concentration of nitrates, phosphate and sewage fungus in the downstream river areas which received treated sewage input and in the sampling month of October.
We found an increase in nutrients and sewage fungus downstream of treated sewage input which caused higher cyanobacteria abundance, while green algae and diatoms declined. The time of sampling (i.e. months) was also significant, with the October peak in nutrient concentrations is most likely explained by a storm overflow event (i.e. the legal release of untreated sewage in rivers when high rain occurs) which happened a week before we sampled. This caused higher cyanobacteria concentrations in October, while diatoms exhibited an opposite trend
Albini, D., Lester, L., Sanders, P., Hughes, J., & Jackson, M. C. (2023). The combined effects of treated sewage discharge and land use on rivers. Global Change Biology, 29, 6415–6422. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16934
The Guardian, ‘An utter disgrace’: 90% of England’s most precious river habitats blighted by raw sewage and farming pollution, Aug 12 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/aug/12/an-utter-disgrace-90-of-englands-most-precious-river-habitats-blighted-by-raw-sewage-and-farming-pollution
There were no significant differences between the rates of viral pathogen detection or viral pathogen densities in dry and wet weather. This is in contrast to typical patterns of indicator bacteria in Boston Harbor, which are generally found at higher levels in wet weather. The typically “spiky” distribution of pathogenic viruses in time, the relatively low numbers of pathogenic viruses present, coupled with strong tidal mixing in the harbor and the perhaps slower rates of die-off or settling of pathogenic viruses may obscure the expected pattern of greater prevalence in wet weather.
Two harbor sampling locations (Stations 014 and 052) were near discharges from CSO treatment facilities (Prison Point and Somerville Marginal, respectively). Pathogenic virus prevalence in wet weather was not higher than in dry weather, implying that there are multiple sources of pathogens.
Unlike pathogenic viruses, coliphages at three harbor locations (mouth of Charles River, mouth of Fort Point Channel, and Carson Beach) had significantly higher counts in wet weather. There were no significant relationships among viral pathogen presence and any of the bacterial or coliphage indicators presumed to predict pathogenic virus presence. Although we had anticipated that coliphages would better correlate with the presence of viral pathogens than the traditional bacteria indicators, our data did not confirm this.
In contrast to Boston Harbor, in the Charles River there was an effect of wet weather on viral pathogen prevalence, doubling the prevalence rate from 18% to 37%. This may reflect the relatively greater loading from stormwater and/or CSO on the relatively smaller volume of receiving water in the river, compared to the harbor. There were spatial differences in viral prevalence within the Charles segment, with the lowest prevalence upstream, the greatest prevalence at the BU Bridge, and slightly less prevalence in the “basin.” Wet weather detection of pathogenic viruses at the BU Bridge station was about the same with or without antecedent Cottage Farm discharges. Surprisingly, although the basin generally has the lowest bacteria counts (Coughlin, in prep) pathogenic viruses were detected there more consistently (in wet and dry weather) than upstream. Adenovirus and enterovirus were the only types of viral pathogens detected in the river, in contrast to the harbor, where all the types of virus tested were found.
Unlike pathogenic viruses, coliphages at three harbor locations (mouth of Charles River, mouth of Fort Point Channel, and Carson Beach) had significantly higher counts in wet weather. There were no significant relationships among viral pathogen presence and any of the bacterial or coliphage indicators presumed to predict pathogenic virus presence. Although we had anticipated that coliphages would better correlate with the presence of viral pathogens than the traditional bacteria indicators, our data did not confirm this."
MWRA Virus Report: 1995-2003, Study of anthropogenic viruses in Boston Harbor, Charles River, Cottage Farm CSO Treatment Facility and Deer Island Treatment Plant 1995-2003, Report ENQUAD 2004-15 (December 2004)
Exposure to various microorganisms can be hazardous to human health. Some of these microorganisms are pathogenic, causing infections, inflammation, or toxicity. Exposure may be due to direct contact or inhalation. Some microorganisms cause allergic disease, particularly airborne fungal or bacterial spores. These are often present in large numbers when decomposing organic matter is handled
Beswick A, Evans G, Crook B, et al. Process safety at anaerobic digestion sites and its workplace impact: A rapid review. Process Saf Prog. 2025; 44(3): 359-367. doi:10.1002/prs.12688
Haley, Beth M et al. “Association between Combined Sewer Overflow Events and Gastrointestinal Illness in Massachusetts Municipalities with and without River-Sourced Drinking Water, 2014-2019.” Environmental health perspectives vol. 132,5 (2024): 57008. doi:10.1289/EHP14213
Discussion: In municipalities bordering a CSO-impacted river in Massachusetts, extreme CSO events are associated with higher risk of AGI within 4 days. The largest CSO events are associated with increased risk of AGI regardless of drinking water source. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP14213.
Mass & Cass runoff triggers appeal to CDC to test Fort Point Channel water
August 2, 2023
https://www.bostonherald.com/2023/08/02/mass-cass-runoff-triggers-appeal-to-cdc-to-test-fort-point-channel-water/
Sewage discharges reported across Boston, officials warn of ‘bacteria or other pollutants’
December 12, 2024
https://www.bostonherald.com/2024/12/12/sewage-discharges-reported-across-boston-officials-warn-of-bacteria-or-other-pollutants/
Pausan, Manuela-Raluca et al. “The sanitary indoor environment-a potential source for intact human-associated anaerobes.” NPJ biofilms and microbiomes vol. 8,1 44. 1 Jun. 2022, doi:10.1038/s41522-022-00305-z
Rain events significantly impacted the microbial composition in the sewers and IWW, largely due to the prevalence of combined sewer lines. Under dry conditions, we observed a shift in bacterial composition during transportation: SWW near households was dominated by gut bacteria, and as it reached the WWTP as IWW, biofilm and sediment bacteria (sewer microbiome) became more prevalent. This shift was amplified during rain, caused by the detachment and suspension of biofilms and sediments. The effect
was especially pronounced after a dry period followed by heavy rainfall (first f lush), as the amount of sewer biomass present depended on the time available for growth. First f lush events can introduce significant biomass to WWTPs.
Marie Riisgaard-Jensen, Rodrigo Maia Valença, Miriam Peces, Per Halkjær Nielsen, Sewer microbiomes shape microbial community composition and dynamics of wastewater treatment plants, The ISME Journal, Volume 19, Issue 1, January 2025, wraf213, https://doi.org/10.1093/ismejo/wraf213
THE CHEMICAL AND BACTERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE SEWAGE DISCHARGED INTO BOSTON HARBOR FROM THE SOUTH METROPOLITAN DISTRICT. WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DIURNAL AND SEASONAL VARIATIONS Author(s): C.-E. A. Winslow and Earle B. Phelps Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases , May, 1905, Supplement No. 1 (May, 1905), pp. 175-208
Water polluted by wastes from warm-blooded animals, including humans, frequently contain pathogenic bacteria. Ingestion of these.
pathogens by drinking polluted. water or by eating raw or partially cooked shellfish grown in these waters can cause gastrointestinal
diseases such as typhoid fever, dysentery and diarrhea. The infectious hepatitis virus, as well as other enteric viruses, may also be present. Body contact with water polluted by bacteria can also cause eye, ear, nose, throat or skin infections. Therefore, bacterial pollution presents a health hazard, not only to those who come in contact with polluted waters, but also to those who eat shellfish taken from the waters.
Tests for pathogenic bacteria of the genus Salmonella were conducted in Boston Harbor. Three of the five sampling swabs placed in the harbor to collect these organisms were positive for Salmonellae. Since almost all serotypes of Salmonella are known to be disease producers in warm-blooded animals, including man, their presence in these waters is proof of a continuing health hazard.
The oxygen demand of sewage and industrial wastes, as measured by the biochemical oxygen demand test, indicates the waste's potential for reducing the dissolved oxygen content of the receiving water. Adequate levels of dissolved oxygen are necessary to support fish and other aquatic life. If dissolved oxygen becomes totally depleted, obnoxious odors, mostly from hydrogen sulfide gas result, causing an unpleasant environment for persons living or working nearby. The hydrogen sulfide given off may turn nearby house, bridges or other painted structures black.
The average value of ammonia nitrogen and soluble phosphorus were equal to or greater than 100 and 40 micrograms per liter,
respectively, in all are of Boston Harbor inland from its mouth near Massachusetts Bay. Such high concentration of nutrients caused. overly enriched conditions that stimulated dense populations of phytoplankton which exceeded 1,000 per milliliter in about sixteen square miles, or 66 percent of the harbor.
In Winthrop Bay, decomposing masses of sea. lettuce have caused hydrogen sulfide emissions sufficient to discolor paint on nearby dwellings.
Municipal and industrial wastes discharged into the receiving waters of Boston Harbor resulted in extensive deposits of decaying
organic atter and incorporated oily residues covering much of the harbor bed. Oily sludge deposits in the Fort Point Channel were more than three feet deep. Hydrogen sulfide gas bubbles effervescing from the sludge in this reach, rose to the surface and burst, creating the odor of rotten eggs. Although not as deep, sludge with similar oil composition and hydrogen sulfide odor was found in several other areas.
The presence of high percentages of organic carbon and organic nitrogen is an indication of sludge deposits resulting from the discharge of municipal and industrial wastes, while sludges low in these organics may be considered inorganic, or "natural" ·deposits. The highest percentages of organic carbon (23.5) and organic nitrogen (1.29) associated with harbor sludges were :found in the Fort Point Channel. This reach was intensively polluted ·and septic. • Such values are similar to those associated with raw wastes from packinghouses, sewage or rapidly decomposing sludge. In samples from. the remaining harbor stations, organic carbon varied from 0.4 to 5.5 percent, and organic nitrogen varied from o.o4 to o.41 percent."
REPORT ON POLLUTION OF THE NAVIGABLE WATERS OF BOSTON HARBOR, FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION (MAY 1968)
The researchers also developed a new method to allow early detection of potentially dangerous outbreaks of 'sewage fungus’. This is a complex mix of fungus, algae, and bacteria which forms large masses when there are high organic nutrient levels. They not only cause unpleasant smells, but severely reduce oxygen levels in water which can adversely affect all river species, and cause mass fish mortality.
The best model to predict nutrient concentration and sewage fungus abundance included an interaction between sampling month and treated sewage discharge. We detected a higher concentration of nitrates, phosphate and sewage fungus in the downstream river areas which received treated sewage input and in the sampling month of October.
We found an increase in nutrients and sewage fungus downstream of treated sewage input which caused higher cyanobacteria abundance, while green algae and diatoms declined. The time of sampling (i.e. months) was also significant, with the October peak in nutrient concentrations is most likely explained by a storm overflow event (i.e. the legal release of untreated sewage in rivers when high rain occurs) which happened a week before we sampled. This caused higher cyanobacteria concentrations in October, while diatoms exhibited an opposite trend
Albini, D., Lester, L., Sanders, P., Hughes, J., & Jackson, M. C. (2023). The combined effects of treated sewage discharge and land use on rivers. Global Change Biology, 29, 6415–6422. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16934
The Guardian, ‘An utter disgrace’: 90% of England’s most precious river habitats blighted by raw sewage and farming pollution, Aug 12 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/aug/12/an-utter-disgrace-90-of-englands-most-precious-river-habitats-blighted-by-raw-sewage-and-farming-pollution
In municipalities bordering a CSO-impacted river in Massachusetts, extreme CSO events are associated with higher risk of AGI within four days. The largest CSO events are associated with increased risk of AGI regardless of drinking water source. Association between combined sewer overflow events and gastrointestinal illness in Massachusetts municipalities with and without river-sourced drinking water, 2014-2019
There is a tendency of the land to clog or become, as it is termed, "sewage sick."
Robinson H. The Bacterial Treatment of Sewage. Journal of the Sanitary Institute. 1903;24(3):349-361. doi:10.1177/146642400302400312
Robinson H. The Bacterial Treatment of Sewage. Journal of the Sanitary Institute. 1903;24(3):349-361. doi:10.1177/146642400302400312
"Why is EPA banning large Cesspools? Cesspools allow untreated sewage to percolate directly to soil and ground water. They are a public health and environmental concern. They are banned because of their likelihood of releasing disease-causing pathogens and other contaminants, such as nitrate, to ground water. The sewage moves through the ground and can contaminate ground water, streams (sources of drinking water) and the ocean.".
US EPA, Ban on Large-Capacity Cesspools to Protect Public Health, EPA 909-F-04-005 (May 2004).
US EPA, Ban on Large-Capacity Cesspools to Protect Public Health, EPA 909-F-04-005 (May 2004).
"Seepage pits disperse effluent in anoxic, or oxygen-poor, environments, where pathogens (especially viruses) may not be treated before they reach the water table. They place fluids below the root zone, where there is no immediate uptake by plants of the water and nutrients, nor is there the potential for treatment by evaporation or evapotranspiration. Water tables are not static, and may rise above the bottom of the seepage pit, flooding it and allowing direct contact of pathogens and nitrogen species with ground water. Seepage pit construction and use may open up pathways to cracks and fissures in rock, sending effluent directly to waterways."
US EPA, Seepage Pits May Endanger Ground Water Quality, EPA 909-F-01-001 (April 2001).
US EPA, Seepage Pits May Endanger Ground Water Quality, EPA 909-F-01-001 (April 2001).
"Cesspools are usually lined or unlined holes in the ground that receive raw sewage and do not provide any treatment of the raw sewage. Therefore, cesspools can allow pathogens, ammonia, and nitrate to percolate directly into ground water. Pathogens which can be present in sewage include cholera, dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis. Nitrate, at a high enough concentration, can cause methemoglobinemia. Depending on the proximity of a cesspool to a nearby stream, river or the ocean, pathogens and nutrients can travel from the cesspool through the ground water to these surface water bodies. Nutrients from shoreline cesspools may contribute to nearshore algal blooms. Vertical disposal, can accelerate pollution, without sun and oxygen to aid treatment.
To comply with the federal ban, an owner of a large capacity cesspool will either have to connect to a sewer and close the cesspool, or install additional treatment such as a large capacity septic system or wastewater package plant. Facility owners must contact the state to determine the requirements applicable to their site, which may include instructions for proper closure of cesspools and pre-construction approval for new onsite wastewater treatment systems."
US EPA, Notes From Underground: Deadline Approaching For Closing Large Capacity Cesspools, EPA 909-N-03-003, Winter 2004.
To comply with the federal ban, an owner of a large capacity cesspool will either have to connect to a sewer and close the cesspool, or install additional treatment such as a large capacity septic system or wastewater package plant. Facility owners must contact the state to determine the requirements applicable to their site, which may include instructions for proper closure of cesspools and pre-construction approval for new onsite wastewater treatment systems."
US EPA, Notes From Underground: Deadline Approaching For Closing Large Capacity Cesspools, EPA 909-N-03-003, Winter 2004.
"The Commission started its work with the conduct of several public hearings During the hearings, residents of the shore-line communities expressed alarm at conditions in Boston Harbor. They did not request - they demanded correction. The Commission was repeatedly told that conditions in Boston Harbor are revolting to the esthetic sensibilities and violate all public health requirements. Witnesses appearing before the Commission described many skin diseases which they held directly traceable to pollution in the harbor... The Commission feels that when mothers, physicians and health officers - all of whom testified before us - believe disease can be traced to polluted water, then steps must be taken to stop pollution. We are of the opinion the public is entitled to correction of this nuisance. During hearings the Commission was repeatedly admonished to study the various methods employed in sewage treatment elsewhere, as a means of eliminating pollution in Boston Harbor. The public, taxpayers large and small, demanded we
propose a program for harbor pollution correction."
Report of the Special Commission Investigating Systems of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal in the North and South Metropolitan Sewerage Districts and the City of Boston, Commonwealth of Massachusetts House, (June 15 1939).
propose a program for harbor pollution correction."
Report of the Special Commission Investigating Systems of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal in the North and South Metropolitan Sewerage Districts and the City of Boston, Commonwealth of Massachusetts House, (June 15 1939).
"CSOs flood waterways with contaminants including microbial pathogens, suspended solids, chemicals, trash, and nutrients that deplete dissolved oxygen. Microbial pathogens and toxics can be present in CSOs at levels that pose risks human health. CSOs can therefore lead to contamination of drinking water supplies, beaches, and shellfish beds."
Tibbetts, J., Combined Sewer Systems: Down, Dirty, and out of Date, Environmental Health Perspectives , Jul., 2005, Vol. 113, No. 7 (Jul., 2005), pp. A464-A467
Tibbetts, J., Combined Sewer Systems: Down, Dirty, and out of Date, Environmental Health Perspectives , Jul., 2005, Vol. 113, No. 7 (Jul., 2005), pp. A464-A467
Shared CSO with NEIDL
"An existing Boston Water and Sewer Commission (BWSC) water main, in Albany Street, provides water service, and a BWSC 2 sanitary sewer line in Albany Street provides sanitary sewer service to the NEIDL. Stormwater runoff from the site discharges into the existing BWSC system entering the Roxbury Canal Conduit, which runs through the site and flows easterly toward an outfall in the Fort Point Channel, a coastal waterbody approximately 0.9 mile from the site."
Site Characteristics, Final Supplementary Risk Assessment for the Boston University National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories (NEIDL) (July 2012). https://www.bu.edu/neidl/files/2013/01/SFEIR-Volume-III.pdf
"An existing Boston Water and Sewer Commission (BWSC) water main, in Albany Street, provides water service, and a BWSC 2 sanitary sewer line in Albany Street provides sanitary sewer service to the NEIDL. Stormwater runoff from the site discharges into the existing BWSC system entering the Roxbury Canal Conduit, which runs through the site and flows easterly toward an outfall in the Fort Point Channel, a coastal waterbody approximately 0.9 mile from the site."
Site Characteristics, Final Supplementary Risk Assessment for the Boston University National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories (NEIDL) (July 2012). https://www.bu.edu/neidl/files/2013/01/SFEIR-Volume-III.pdf
840 Boston Medical Center - Illegal Direct Sewage Discharge into Ocean
Sewage Parasites
"A plea is made by Clark (56) that in the design and operation of sewage treatment plants public health aspects should not be overlooked because sewage is still a potential health hazard. Hamlin (96) reported the presence of cysts of amoebic dysentery and eggs of roundworms, tapeworms and hookworms in Johannesburg sewage. Screens, settling tanks and coarse grained biological filters were not adequate in removing these organisms."
Rudolfs, et al, A Critical Review of the Literature of 1946 on Sewage and Waste Treatment and Stream Pollution, Sewage Works Journal , Mar., 1947, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Mar., 1947), pp. 207-247.
"A plea is made by Clark (56) that in the design and operation of sewage treatment plants public health aspects should not be overlooked because sewage is still a potential health hazard. Hamlin (96) reported the presence of cysts of amoebic dysentery and eggs of roundworms, tapeworms and hookworms in Johannesburg sewage. Screens, settling tanks and coarse grained biological filters were not adequate in removing these organisms."
Rudolfs, et al, A Critical Review of the Literature of 1946 on Sewage and Waste Treatment and Stream Pollution, Sewage Works Journal , Mar., 1947, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Mar., 1947), pp. 207-247.
Inner Harbor seafloor
2006 Photography of Boston Harbor sea floor.
Ackerman, S.D., Butman, B., Barnhardt, W.A., Danforth, W.W. and Crocker, J.M., 2006, High-resolution geologic mapping of the inner continental shelf; Boston Harbor and approaches, Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006-1008,
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1008/.
Ackerman, S.D., Butman, B., Barnhardt, W.A., Danforth, W.W. and Crocker, J.M., 2006, High-resolution geologic mapping of the inner continental shelf; Boston Harbor and approaches, Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006-1008,
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1008/.
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Funding & Water pollution enforcement
Pollution of Boston Harbor Brings a Fine of $2.4 Million (April 14 1988)
Massachusetts will pay $2.4 million for polluting Boston Harbor in a settlement reached after negotiations over several years, a top state official said today. Of the amount, $2 million will go to a special Boston Harbor cleanup fund, according to the official, William Geary, who heads the Metropolitan District Commission, while $425,000 will be paid as a fine to the United States Treasury. The settlement stems from a lawsuit filed in the mid-1980's when environmentalists and lawyers representing the city of Quincy sued the district commission for polluting the harbor. The commission has wide authority over public services in the metropolitan area.
https://www.nytimes.com/1988/04/14/us/pollution-of-boston-harbor-brings-a-fine-of-2.4-million.html
Massachusetts will pay $2.4 million for polluting Boston Harbor in a settlement reached after negotiations over several years, a top state official said today. Of the amount, $2 million will go to a special Boston Harbor cleanup fund, according to the official, William Geary, who heads the Metropolitan District Commission, while $425,000 will be paid as a fine to the United States Treasury. The settlement stems from a lawsuit filed in the mid-1980's when environmentalists and lawyers representing the city of Quincy sued the district commission for polluting the harbor. The commission has wide authority over public services in the metropolitan area.
https://www.nytimes.com/1988/04/14/us/pollution-of-boston-harbor-brings-a-fine-of-2.4-million.html
EPA APPROVES $27 MILLION TO HELP COVER COSTS OF BOSTON HARBOR CLEANUP
Release Date: 03/09/1999
BOSTON - The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's New England Office today announced that $27 million has been approved to help pay for Boston Harbor cleanup-related costs incurred by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority. The appropriation brings to $50 million what MWRA is receiving this fiscal year from EPA to help pay for the cleanup. The $27 million is earmarked for two specific projects - $6 million to help pay for a new sewage sludge processing facility in Quincy and $21 million to help pay for the new inner-island tunnel which is being used to transport wastewater from Nut Island in Quincy to Deer Island. The $27 million will save the average MWRA household more than $80 on their rates. "Approval of this $27 million grant is a win-win because it moves the harbor cleanup forward and it reduces the financial burden on MWRA ratepayers," said John P. DeVillars, EPA's New England Administrator. "As positive and beneficial as the Boston Harbor cleanup has been, EPA must be sensitive to the fact that the project is expensive and that all funding options must be pursued to defray costs for ratepayers." DeVillars expressed gratitude to U.S. Senator Edward M. Kennedy and U.S. Senator John F. Kerry for helping to secure the funds during the supplemental appropriations process in the U.S. Senate last week. "This is another important step in ensuring a safe, clean and vital harbor, while sharing the economic burden of this essential and historic cleanup," said Senator Edward M. Kennedy. "The Massachusetts delegation has worked long and hard to ensure that Boston has the money they need to clean up the harbor," added Senator John F. Kerry. "As we approach the final stages of the cleanup process, it is even more important that we were able to protect these funds from attacks on its allocation, and EPA's decision to release these funds ensures that this critical funding will not be threatened again."
https://www.epa.gov/archive/epapages/newsroom_archive/newsreleases/aa40970efa2637d5852574b00006b469.html
Release Date: 03/09/1999
BOSTON - The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's New England Office today announced that $27 million has been approved to help pay for Boston Harbor cleanup-related costs incurred by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority. The appropriation brings to $50 million what MWRA is receiving this fiscal year from EPA to help pay for the cleanup. The $27 million is earmarked for two specific projects - $6 million to help pay for a new sewage sludge processing facility in Quincy and $21 million to help pay for the new inner-island tunnel which is being used to transport wastewater from Nut Island in Quincy to Deer Island. The $27 million will save the average MWRA household more than $80 on their rates. "Approval of this $27 million grant is a win-win because it moves the harbor cleanup forward and it reduces the financial burden on MWRA ratepayers," said John P. DeVillars, EPA's New England Administrator. "As positive and beneficial as the Boston Harbor cleanup has been, EPA must be sensitive to the fact that the project is expensive and that all funding options must be pursued to defray costs for ratepayers." DeVillars expressed gratitude to U.S. Senator Edward M. Kennedy and U.S. Senator John F. Kerry for helping to secure the funds during the supplemental appropriations process in the U.S. Senate last week. "This is another important step in ensuring a safe, clean and vital harbor, while sharing the economic burden of this essential and historic cleanup," said Senator Edward M. Kennedy. "The Massachusetts delegation has worked long and hard to ensure that Boston has the money they need to clean up the harbor," added Senator John F. Kerry. "As we approach the final stages of the cleanup process, it is even more important that we were able to protect these funds from attacks on its allocation, and EPA's decision to release these funds ensures that this critical funding will not be threatened again."
https://www.epa.gov/archive/epapages/newsroom_archive/newsreleases/aa40970efa2637d5852574b00006b469.html
Comparitors: Gowanus Canal Superfund Site
The Gowanus Canal is nearly two miles long and 100 feet wide. It flows into the New York Harbor. The neighborhood sits in a flood zone, vulnerable to storm surges. And that flood zone is expected to expand as sea levels rise by as much as two feet by the 2050s, according to projections by the New York City Panel on Climate Change. As sea levels rise, so will the groundwater. High tides will become higher, too. Plus, climate change will mean more frequent and intense bouts of rain, causing floods that could spread contamination around. Most of the city’s sewers handle both wastewater and stormwater, but heavy rain can overwhelm that system so that raw sewage spills into the canal from a series of overflow sites, creating what’s known locally as a ‘poonami.’ The city Department of Environmental Protection is constructing two massive retention tanks to significantly reduce the overflows of waste into the canal. Much of the land surrounding the canal is polluted with many of the same contaminants, and is slated for remediation under the oversight of the state Department of Environmental Conservation. The EPA is scooping out much of the contaminated sediment — known as ‘black mayonnaise’ in local parlance — and will then place a multi-layered cap on top. The cap is meant to prevent exposure from contamination beneath, even with erosion from strong currents or boat traffic. In some areas below the cap, cement is mixed with sediment to keep the remaining contamination from moving. Contaminated land slated for development will get remediated. But much of the area is already built up on land that remains contaminated. People living and working in those buildings may be at risk of inhaling toxic fumes if the chemicals in the ground become gas and come inside through floor cracks, crawl spaces or pipes. The state is conducting tests to figure out if that’s a problem, in which case it could install a system to vent out any fumes.
https://projects.thecity.nyc/hazard-nyc-gowanus-canal/
The Gowanus Canal is a 100-foot wide, 1.8-mile-long canal in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, Kings County, New York. Several communities surround the canal, including Park Slope, Cobble Hill, Carroll Gardens and Red Hook. The canal empties into New York Harbor. The adjacent waterfront is primarily commercial and industrial and is home to concrete plants, warehouses, and parking lots. The Gowanus Canal was built in the mid-1800s and was a major industrial transportation route. Manufactured gas plants (MGPs), paper mills, tanneries, and chemical plants operated along the canal and discharged wastes directly into it.
In addition, during storm events, contamination flows into the canal from combined sewer system overflows (CSOs) that carry sanitary waste and rainwater a from storm drains. As a result, the Gowanus Canal is one of the nation's most seriously contaminated water bodies. Canal sediment contain high levels of more than a dozen contaminants. Contaminants include including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and heavy metals such as mercury, lead and copper.
https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0206222
https://projects.thecity.nyc/hazard-nyc-gowanus-canal/
The Gowanus Canal is a 100-foot wide, 1.8-mile-long canal in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, Kings County, New York. Several communities surround the canal, including Park Slope, Cobble Hill, Carroll Gardens and Red Hook. The canal empties into New York Harbor. The adjacent waterfront is primarily commercial and industrial and is home to concrete plants, warehouses, and parking lots. The Gowanus Canal was built in the mid-1800s and was a major industrial transportation route. Manufactured gas plants (MGPs), paper mills, tanneries, and chemical plants operated along the canal and discharged wastes directly into it.
In addition, during storm events, contamination flows into the canal from combined sewer system overflows (CSOs) that carry sanitary waste and rainwater a from storm drains. As a result, the Gowanus Canal is one of the nation's most seriously contaminated water bodies. Canal sediment contain high levels of more than a dozen contaminants. Contaminants include including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and heavy metals such as mercury, lead and copper.
https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0206222
Minneapolis
Atlas Obscura, The Strange Heat Island Lurking Beneath Minneapolis, An urban explorer ventured deep below downtown in search of Schieks Cave. What he found changed science, August 13, 2024, https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/heat-island-schieks-cave-minneapolis
He finally had a way to access the cave—but there was another problem. Along the route, the raw sewage poured from shafts overhead, shooting bacteria into the air as it splashed down and creating what’s politely known as “coliform aerosols.” Unsurprisingly, Brick got sick. “It was kind of like food poisoning,” he says. He wore a respirator on return trips.
An old artesian well sprays groundwater into the cave; water falling from above can kick up bacteria-rich material politely known as “coliform aerosols.” Courtesy Greg Brick
But it was on that initial trip into the cave that he took the groundwater’s temperature and made his surprise discovery. The water should have been around 46 degrees Fahrenheit. Instead, it was 66 degrees. He filed that information away as interesting and, like any good scientist, retested it on a return trip. He got a similar result. It was, in science-speak, “a durable phenomenon,” he says.
On that return trip, “I measured the temperature of seeps all over, wherever I could,” he says. The closer to the surface he measured, the warmer the water was. In 2008, a separate team from the University of Minnesota had predicted that heat from Minneapolis’s urban surface was conducting itself deep underground, heating the groundwater there like a metropolitan microwave. Brick’s subsequent research proved them right—but also showed that they had significantly underestimated the extent of the warming.
Brick published his results in 2022, as a chapter in Threats to Springs in a Changing World, published by the American Geophysical Union. His findings aren’t unique to Minneapolis. From Japan to Italy, Canada to Switzerland, scientists have found other “subsurface urban heat islands” where pavement and basements warm up what’s below them. Brick’s discovery is not just a curiosity—it has potentially serious consequences. Beneath cities, as pipes degrade and connections weaken, leaks in the sewage system are unavoidable, releasing bacteria into the subterranean environment. In warm groundwater, the potential pathogens can proliferate. “You put them in a stew pot,” Brick says. Normally, positive pressure in urban water systems keeps germs from infiltrating. But when water mains break—as they do 260,000 times each year in the United States and Canada—that protective measure breaks as well. That’s why water main problems are linked to outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease. “The pressure can’t keep ambient water out,” Brick says.
Brick, G. (2022). The Great Subterranean Spring of Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, and the Potential Impact of Subsurface Urban Heat Islands. In Threats to Springs in a Changing World (eds M.J. Currell and B.G. Katz). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119818625.ch10
He finally had a way to access the cave—but there was another problem. Along the route, the raw sewage poured from shafts overhead, shooting bacteria into the air as it splashed down and creating what’s politely known as “coliform aerosols.” Unsurprisingly, Brick got sick. “It was kind of like food poisoning,” he says. He wore a respirator on return trips.
An old artesian well sprays groundwater into the cave; water falling from above can kick up bacteria-rich material politely known as “coliform aerosols.” Courtesy Greg Brick
But it was on that initial trip into the cave that he took the groundwater’s temperature and made his surprise discovery. The water should have been around 46 degrees Fahrenheit. Instead, it was 66 degrees. He filed that information away as interesting and, like any good scientist, retested it on a return trip. He got a similar result. It was, in science-speak, “a durable phenomenon,” he says.
On that return trip, “I measured the temperature of seeps all over, wherever I could,” he says. The closer to the surface he measured, the warmer the water was. In 2008, a separate team from the University of Minnesota had predicted that heat from Minneapolis’s urban surface was conducting itself deep underground, heating the groundwater there like a metropolitan microwave. Brick’s subsequent research proved them right—but also showed that they had significantly underestimated the extent of the warming.
Brick published his results in 2022, as a chapter in Threats to Springs in a Changing World, published by the American Geophysical Union. His findings aren’t unique to Minneapolis. From Japan to Italy, Canada to Switzerland, scientists have found other “subsurface urban heat islands” where pavement and basements warm up what’s below them. Brick’s discovery is not just a curiosity—it has potentially serious consequences. Beneath cities, as pipes degrade and connections weaken, leaks in the sewage system are unavoidable, releasing bacteria into the subterranean environment. In warm groundwater, the potential pathogens can proliferate. “You put them in a stew pot,” Brick says. Normally, positive pressure in urban water systems keeps germs from infiltrating. But when water mains break—as they do 260,000 times each year in the United States and Canada—that protective measure breaks as well. That’s why water main problems are linked to outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease. “The pressure can’t keep ambient water out,” Brick says.
Brick, G. (2022). The Great Subterranean Spring of Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, and the Potential Impact of Subsurface Urban Heat Islands. In Threats to Springs in a Changing World (eds M.J. Currell and B.G. Katz). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119818625.ch10
London
BBC, 'I've fallen ill five times after surfing at sea' (Dec. 21 2021), https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-sussex-59702293
Across the UK, 286 people told the charity Surfers Against Sewage that they fell ill after swimming or surfing this year - up from 153 in 2020.
It was one of five times she had fallen ill after surfing following heavy rain.
The River Thames runs west–east through the centre of London. Many tributaries flow into it. Over time these changed from water sources to untreated sewers and disease sources. As the city developed from a cluster of villages, many of the Thames tributaries were buried or converted into canals.
Just a few weeks a comparable sewer system in England experienced a reoccurring blockage issue they have dubbed “fatbergs.” BBC wrote that: “Thames Water says residents are not currently affected as the sewer remains only partially blocked. Tim Davies, head of waste operations for north London, said: "This latest fatberg shows exactly what happens when fats, oils and wipes go down our drains – they don't disappear, they build up and cause serious damage. "The cost of clearing blockages and repairing sewers runs into tens of millions of pounds every year, and that money ultimately comes from our customers." The blockage has been dubbed "the grandchild" of the 2017 Whitechapel fatberg, which weighed 130 tonnes and stretched more than 250m. That fatberg was one of the largest ever found in the city, and a sample even went on display at the Museum of London.”
BBC, Huge 100-tonne fatberg found in London sewers, Dec. 22 2025, , https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cj9ydve2kz7o
40-ton 'fatberg' the size of a double-decker bus removed from London sewers: The fatberg had been taking up 80% of the sewer’s capacity ,October 31, 2019,
https://abcnews.go.com/International/40-ton-fatberg-size-double-decker-bus-removed/story?id=66663243
People living along polluted Thames file legal complaint to force water firm to act, Residents claim raw sewage and poorly treated effluent as result of Thames Water’s failings are threat to health. Dec. 1 2025 .
https://www.theguardian.com/business/2025/dec/02/people-living-along-polluted-thames-file-legal-complaint-force-water-firm-act
Ms Wilson also told the BBC she believed this was "just the tip of the iceberg", and water firms were "hiding the true horrors of their filthy sewage habits" by fitting sewage monitors that are unable to measure the litres of sewage discharged. BBC, Thames Water: 72 billion litres of sewage pumped into river in two years, 10 November 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-67357566
The Guardian, Story of cities #14: London's Great Stink, April 4 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/04/story-cities-14-london-great-stink-river-thames-joseph-bazalgette-sewage-system
A surveyor for the [sewer] commission was able to report satisfactorily that over 290 miles of sewers had been flushed by February of 1849: "From these," he goes on to explain, "about 79,483 cube [sic] yards of deposit have been removed. . . . [This, with few exceptions, has been sent into the River Thames." The sudden and intensive discharge of the city's domestic refuse into the river resulted in the rapid physical deterioration of the Thames. Although it was by no means pristine in the first decades of the century, the condition of the Thames at midcentury was demonstrably worse. The river quickly became notorious for its filth, as reflected in the numerous epithets attached to it: it was "a great tidal sewer," a "cloaca maxima," a "hot-bed of infection and the nursery of epidemics." The nuisance reached a crisis point in the unusually hot summer of 1858, when the stench from the river and its oozy banks was so offensive that the episode became thereafter known as the "Great Stink." . .
Allen, M., Good Intentions, Unexpected Consequences: Thames Pollution of and The Great Stink of 1858 (2008)
The prevalence of raw sewage in British waters is not only about the horror of swimming amid human waste but about the health and environmental threats of microplastics (especially from laundry water), endocrine disruptors (chemicals that interfere with hormones found in plastics, detergents and cosmetics), phosphorus (which causes algae blooms), antibiotic-resistant bacteria and even Covid-19 – all spread through wastewater. All overflows reach the same place. “All of our waterways are connected,” says Tagholm. “It’s one cycle: what goes into our rivers ends up in our ocean.”
A key example of green infrastructure solutions are sustainable drainage systems, known as SuDS. These allow the environment to absorb, slow and divert water. They use wetlands, ponds and green ditches called swales, as well as green roofs, rainwater-harvesting systems and replacing nonabsorbent surfaces with porous asphalt or gravel.
Sewage island: how Britain came to spew its raw waste into the sea, (Apr. 19 2021), https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/19/sewage-island-how-britain-spews-untreated-waste-rivers-sea
Across the UK, 286 people told the charity Surfers Against Sewage that they fell ill after swimming or surfing this year - up from 153 in 2020.
It was one of five times she had fallen ill after surfing following heavy rain.
The River Thames runs west–east through the centre of London. Many tributaries flow into it. Over time these changed from water sources to untreated sewers and disease sources. As the city developed from a cluster of villages, many of the Thames tributaries were buried or converted into canals.
Just a few weeks a comparable sewer system in England experienced a reoccurring blockage issue they have dubbed “fatbergs.” BBC wrote that: “Thames Water says residents are not currently affected as the sewer remains only partially blocked. Tim Davies, head of waste operations for north London, said: "This latest fatberg shows exactly what happens when fats, oils and wipes go down our drains – they don't disappear, they build up and cause serious damage. "The cost of clearing blockages and repairing sewers runs into tens of millions of pounds every year, and that money ultimately comes from our customers." The blockage has been dubbed "the grandchild" of the 2017 Whitechapel fatberg, which weighed 130 tonnes and stretched more than 250m. That fatberg was one of the largest ever found in the city, and a sample even went on display at the Museum of London.”
BBC, Huge 100-tonne fatberg found in London sewers, Dec. 22 2025, , https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cj9ydve2kz7o
40-ton 'fatberg' the size of a double-decker bus removed from London sewers: The fatberg had been taking up 80% of the sewer’s capacity ,October 31, 2019,
https://abcnews.go.com/International/40-ton-fatberg-size-double-decker-bus-removed/story?id=66663243
People living along polluted Thames file legal complaint to force water firm to act, Residents claim raw sewage and poorly treated effluent as result of Thames Water’s failings are threat to health. Dec. 1 2025 .
https://www.theguardian.com/business/2025/dec/02/people-living-along-polluted-thames-file-legal-complaint-force-water-firm-act
Ms Wilson also told the BBC she believed this was "just the tip of the iceberg", and water firms were "hiding the true horrors of their filthy sewage habits" by fitting sewage monitors that are unable to measure the litres of sewage discharged. BBC, Thames Water: 72 billion litres of sewage pumped into river in two years, 10 November 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-67357566
The Guardian, Story of cities #14: London's Great Stink, April 4 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/04/story-cities-14-london-great-stink-river-thames-joseph-bazalgette-sewage-system
A surveyor for the [sewer] commission was able to report satisfactorily that over 290 miles of sewers had been flushed by February of 1849: "From these," he goes on to explain, "about 79,483 cube [sic] yards of deposit have been removed. . . . [This, with few exceptions, has been sent into the River Thames." The sudden and intensive discharge of the city's domestic refuse into the river resulted in the rapid physical deterioration of the Thames. Although it was by no means pristine in the first decades of the century, the condition of the Thames at midcentury was demonstrably worse. The river quickly became notorious for its filth, as reflected in the numerous epithets attached to it: it was "a great tidal sewer," a "cloaca maxima," a "hot-bed of infection and the nursery of epidemics." The nuisance reached a crisis point in the unusually hot summer of 1858, when the stench from the river and its oozy banks was so offensive that the episode became thereafter known as the "Great Stink." . .
Allen, M., Good Intentions, Unexpected Consequences: Thames Pollution of and The Great Stink of 1858 (2008)
The prevalence of raw sewage in British waters is not only about the horror of swimming amid human waste but about the health and environmental threats of microplastics (especially from laundry water), endocrine disruptors (chemicals that interfere with hormones found in plastics, detergents and cosmetics), phosphorus (which causes algae blooms), antibiotic-resistant bacteria and even Covid-19 – all spread through wastewater. All overflows reach the same place. “All of our waterways are connected,” says Tagholm. “It’s one cycle: what goes into our rivers ends up in our ocean.”
A key example of green infrastructure solutions are sustainable drainage systems, known as SuDS. These allow the environment to absorb, slow and divert water. They use wetlands, ponds and green ditches called swales, as well as green roofs, rainwater-harvesting systems and replacing nonabsorbent surfaces with porous asphalt or gravel.
Sewage island: how Britain came to spew its raw waste into the sea, (Apr. 19 2021), https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/19/sewage-island-how-britain-spews-untreated-waste-rivers-sea